School and Home Cooking by Carlotta C. Greer Published: 1920
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DIVISION FOUR
ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS,--RICH IN CARBOHYDRATES
LESSON XVI
SUGAR: DIGESTION OF SUGAR
ENERGY; FUEL.--An automobile is a machine. The use of gasoline in this
machine gives it energy or the power to move.
The human body is also a machine. Certain foods are taken into the human
machine. The utilization of these foods gives the body energy or the power
to move (i.e. to do work). The body is capable of both voluntary
and involuntary work. Walking and running are examples of the former kind
of work, while the beating of the heart and the circulating of the blood
are examples of the latter kind.
At the same time that the body works, heat is generated. Hence foods not
only give the body the power to do work, but incidentally they heat the
body. Foods which enable the body to work are termed energy-giving or fuel
foods.
There are a number of energy-giving or fuel foods: sugar is the
first one to be considered.
EXPERIMENT 10: THE SOLUBILITY OF GRANULATED SUGAR IN COLD WATER--Place
half a teaspoonful of granulated sugar in a test tube, add a little cold
water, shake. Is the mixture clear? Set it aside for a few minutes. Does
the sugar separate from the water?
EXPERIMENT 11: THE SOLUBILITY OF GRANULATED SUGAR IN HOT WATER.--Dissolve
half a teaspoonful of granulated sugar in hot water. Compare with
Experiment 10. Which dissolves sugar more readily,--cold or hot water? If
you desired to dissolve some sugar quickly, at what temperature would you
have the water?
EXPERIMENT 12: THE SOLUBILITY OF POWDERED SUGAR.--Dissolve half a
teaspoonful of powdered sugar in the same quantity of hot water used in
Experiment 11. Does it dissolve more readily than granulated sugar?
Explain this difference. If you desired to dissolve some lumpy sugar
quickly, how would you prepare it?
THE DIGESTION OF SUGAR.--Since sugar is so readily dissolved, and since
dissolving is an important step in the process of digestion (see
Solution and Digestion), it would seem that the digestion of sugar
would be easy. Some sugars, such as glucose, need no digestion in a
chemical sense, and are wholesome provided their solution is not too
concentrated. The digestion of other sugar, such as granulated sugar, is
slightly more complex.
Because the digesting of some sugar is simple, one should not conclude
that this food should be used in large quantities or in preference to
other fuel foods. If sugar is eaten in large quantities there is so much
dissolved sugar for the organs of digestion to take care of that the
stomach and small intestines become irritated. This is especially true
when candy is eaten between meals,--at a time when the stomach is empty.
Then, too, it may ferment in the stomach or intestines and produce
digestive disturbances. All sweets should be eaten only in moderation and
either during a meal or at its close. When sugar is mixed with other
foods, it is diluted, and is not so apt to cause distress.
SUGARS AND SIRUPS.--In various plants and in milk, the chemist finds a
number of different kinds of sugar. These may be classified into two
groups:--(1) single sugars and (2) double sugars. Dextrose or
glucose is one of the single sugars, while sucrose or
cane sugar is an example of a double sugar.
The solid sugars and sirups found at market and having different trade
names consist of one or more of the different kinds of sugars. A
discussion of these follows:
(a) Granulated sugar is made either from the sugar cane or
sugar beet. The juice is pressed or soaked out of these plants, then
purified, refined, and crystallized. Powdered sugar is prepared by
crushing granulated sugar. Confectioners' sugar is a very finely
ground form of cane or beet sugar. Granulated sugar is 100 per cent sugar.
Crushed sugars sometimes contain flour or other materials.
Brown sugar is made from the cane or beet, but is not refined as
much as is granulated sugar. It contains some ash and moisture.
(b) Corn sirup is made by boiling corn-starch with an acid
and then refining the product. This sirup contains no cane sugar. Its
sweet flavor and sirupy consistency are due to the presence of 38.5 per
cent glucose and 42 per cent dextrin. Glucose is not as sweet as
granulated sugar. Hence, in depending upon corn sirup alone, the tendency
is to use more sugar than is advisable so as to satisfy our taste for
sweets. At least 1 1/2 times as much corn sirup as granulated sugar is
needed to produce the sweetness of the solid sugar. A mixture of corn
sirup and granulated sugar is often used for sweetening foods.
(c) Molasses and Sorghum.--Molasses is a by-product of cane
sugar. In addition to sugar, it contains certain mineral materials such as
lime. Since it is especially necessary that foods given children contain
lime, the use of molasses in place of sugar may be recommended for
children.
One should remember, however, that much sugar of any kind is not good for
children. Molasses contains some acid. Because of modern methods of sugar
refining, however, molasses is less acid than the sirup of former days. It
also differs in flavor.
Sorghum is a sirup prepared from the sorghum plant. It contains ash and
has a characteristic flavor. If the flavor of molasses or sorghum is too
strong to be pleasant, a mixture of equal parts of corn sirup and molasses
or sorghum may be found desirable. Mixtures of different sirups sold under
various trade names may be purchased.
(d) Honey is sugar extracted from flowers. Its limited
supply and cost prevent its general use. It is not so rich in mineral
matter as is molasses.
(e) Maple Sirup and Sugar.--Maple sirup and sugar are
prepared from sap extracted from the maple tree. They both have a
distinctive flavor in addition to their sweet taste. Maple sugar contains
approximately 83 per cent of sugar, while maple sirup contains about 71
per cent.
PEANUT CANDY
2 cupfuls granulated sugar or
1 cupful granulated sugar and
1 cupful corn sirup (dark)
3/4 cupful chopped peanuts
1/4 teaspoonful salt
Mix the peanuts and salt and place in the warming oven to heat. If sugar
is used alone, put it in an iron pan. Place the pan over a low flame and
stir constantly until the sugar is changed to a light brown sirup.
If a combination of sugar and sirup is used, put them in a pan, stir, and
cook until the mixture is very brittle when tried in cold water.
Add the chopped peanuts and salt to either kind of sirup, stirring them in
as quickly as possible. Pour immediately into a hot, unbuttered
pan. When slightly cool divide into squares with a chopping knife.
Puffed cereals or shredded coconut may be used instead of
peanuts. Commercial salted peanuts may be used also. When the latter are
used, the salt in the recipe above should be omitted.
CARAMELIZED SUGAR.--It should be noted that when heat is applied to
granulated sugar, the latter liquefies and becomes brown in color. This
brown liquid is called caramel The process of making it is called
caramelization.
When sugar is caramelizing, it reaches a high temperature. The melting
point of tin is near the temperature of caramelized sugar. The enamel of
granite ware is apt to chip off if subjected to great changes of
temperature. Iron is not affected by the highest cooking temperature,
hence it is desirable to use an iron utensil for caramelizing sugar.
NOTE.--When cane or granulated sugar is caramelized, a small quantity of
an injurious substance called furfural is formed. (See Journal of
Home Economics, Vol. IX (April, 1917), p. 167.) The more sugar is heated,
the more of the injurious substance is produced. Also, cane sugar yields
more furfural than glucose,--the kind of sugar that is present in corn
sirup. When caramelized sugar is boiled with water, however, the furfural
is expelled.
In making Peanut Candy, the caramelized sugar cannot be boiled with water,
hence it is desirable to use a combination of granulated sugar and corn
sirup and heat the mixture until it is only light brown in color.
EXPERIMENT 13: THE SOLUBILITY OF CARAMEL.--Immediately after removing the
candy from the iron pan, pour hot water into the pan. Allow it to stand
for several minutes, then examine. Is caramel soluble in water? Does it
dissolve more or less readily than granulated sugar? What practical
application can be drawn from this experiment with regard to washing a pan
in which sugar has been caramelized?
QUESTIONS
Weigh one pound of granulated sugar. How many cupfuls does it measure?
Weigh one pound of powdered sugar. How many cupfuls does it measure?
What is the price per pound of granulated and of powdered sugar?
What is the price of corn sirup per can? How much does a can measure?
Calculate the cost of peanut candy made entirely with granulated sugar and
that made with granulated sugar and sirup.
Note the proportion of unshelled to shelled peanuts. How many unshelled
peanuts are required for one cupful of shelled peanuts?
Why is an iron rather than a granite pan used for making peanut candy?
What is the advantage of heating the pan?
Why is it necessary to pour the mixture into the pan immediately after
adding the peanuts?
Why is a mixture of granulated sugar and corn sirup used in the making of
peanut candy rather than corn sirup? (See Corn Sirup.)
From your work in physiology, explain the relation of the digestion,
absorption, and assimilation of foods.
LESSON XVII
SUGAR-RICH FRUITS: DRIED FRUITS (A)
DRIED FRUITS.--The wrinkled skins of dried fruits indicate that there has
been a loss of some material. The water of fresh fruits evaporates as they
are dried. Hence dried fruits contain very much less water than fresh
fruits. But weight for weight they contain a greater quantity of sugar and
ash.
Like all fruits, dried fruits are especially valuable for their ash. They
are also valuable for their sugar. Three fourths of the weight of most
dried fruit is sugar.
Dried fruits such as raisins, dates, figs, and prunes are valuable sweets
for boys and girls. It is much better to eat one of these fruits than
candy. This is because the sugar is mixed with other materials and as
explained previously does not irritate the digestive organs as does the
concentrated sugar existing in most candies. (See the Digestion of
Sugar.) The fact that mineral materials exist along with sugar is
another point in favor of the sweet fruits. All the above-mentioned fruits
contain iron. Very young children are fed prune juice because of its
laxative effect.
The unpopularity of prunes is unfortunate. This may be because prunes were
formerly one of the cheapest fruits or because they are cooked and served
in the same way too often. A pleasing variation may be made by combining
them with other food materials. Many kinds of very tasty desserts
containing prunes may be made. Many varieties of prunes may be cooked
without the addition of any sugar. Desirable results can often be secured
by combining prunes and other dried fruits with tart fruits such as
apricots, apples, and rhubarb.
Raisins are a favorite food of mountain climbers and those tramping long
distances. They serve as a satisfying diet on such trips because of their
high sugar content (sugar has been mentioned previously as energy-giver).
Since they are a dried fruit, a small quantity furnishes much food. This
is an advantageous factor in carrying them.
GENERAL RULES FOR COOKING DRIED FRUITS.--Wash the fruit carefully. Place
it in the saucepan in which it is to be cooked and pour enough cold water
over the fruit to cover it. Cover the saucepan and allow the fruit to soak
for several hours or overnight. Then cook the fruit at simmering
temperature in the water in which it was soaked. When the fruit is tender,
remove the saucepan from the fire, add sugar if desired, and stir
carefully until the sugar is dissolved. Serve cold.
PRUNES
Prepare according to the general rule. For each 2 cupfuls of prunes add
about 1/4 cupful of sugar and one tablespoonful of lemon juice. The sugar
may be omitted and only the lemon juice added.
APRICOTS
Prepare according to the general rule. For 1/2 pound of apricots add 1/2
cupful of sugar.
TO PREPARE RAISINS FOR COOKING.--Raisins that are sold in packages need
only slight washing. Before using, they should be separated and examined
for any bits of stem that have not been removed before packing. It is
desirable to cut each raisin in halves when used for cakes and breads.
Raisins that are sold by "bulk" need careful washing. Place seeded raisins
in a strainer and pour cold water over them; drain well. If the raisins
are to be used at once or in a cake, dry them on a towel.
If raisins are to be seeded, cover them with boiling water. When they are
soft, drain and press out the seeds.
TO PREPARE CURRANTS FOR COOKING.--"Package" currants need but little
washing, but they should be examined carefully for bits of stem before
using. To clean "bulk" currants place them in a colander or strainer,
shake flour over them, and rub the floured currants between the hands.
Pour water through the strainer until the water comes through clear. If
the currants are to be used in a cake, dry them in the sun, on a towel, or
in a "cool" oven.
MIXED FRUIT SAUCE
1/2 pound dried apricots
1 pint water
1 cupful raisins
1/4 teaspoonful salt
1 lemon,--juice
1 orange,--juice and grated rind
5/8 cupful sugar
Soak the apricots for several hours or overnight in the water. Add the
other fruits and cook the mixture at simmering temperature until the
apricots and raisins are tender. Add the sugar and salt. Stir until
dissolved. Serve the sauce cold as a dessert.
QUESTIONS
Weigh 1 cupful of dried fruit and record weight.
Weigh and measure soaked fruit (1 cupful before soaking) and record weight
and measure. To what is the increase in measure of the soaked fruit due?
What use should be made of the water in which dried fruit is soaked? What
does this water contain? (See Experiment 10.)
What is the purpose of soaking dried fruit before cooking?
What is the purpose of covering the fruit while soaking?
Using the data regarding fresh fruit obtained in Lesson I, and that
obtained by weighing dried fruit before and after soaking, estimate the
difference in the cost of one pound of fresh and of soaked dried fruit.
State two reasons for combining raisins with apples and apricots in Baked
Apples and Mixed Fruit Sauce.
LESSON XVIII
SUGAR-RICH FRUITS: DRIED FRUITS (B)
DESSERTS AND FOOD VALUE.--Very often dried fruits and nuts are used as
accessories after a meal. Under these conditions they are digested often
with difficulty, because the meal itself has taxed the digestive organs.
These foods should be considered as a part of the meal and should not be
added after enough other foods have been eaten. Not only dried fruits and
nuts but other desserts often prove distressing, not because they are
unwholesome, but because too much food has been eaten.
PRUNE PUDDING
1 cupful cooked prunes, seeded and chopped
1/2 cupful sugar
1 cupful chopped nuts
1/2 cupful milk or prune water
1 teaspoonful vanilla
1 tablespoonful butter or substitute, melted
3 crackers (rolled fine) or 1/2 cupful dried bread crumbs
1 teaspoonful baking powder
Salt
Mix all the ingredients. Pour into a buttered baking-dish. Place the
baking-dish in a pan of hot water. Bake in a moderate oven for 20 minutes,
or until the mixture is firm. Serve hot or cold with plain or whipped
cream.
DATE PUDDING
1/2 cupful sugar
1 egg
2 tablespoonfuls milk
1/3 cupful flour
1 teaspoonful baking powder
Salt
1 cupful dates, seeded, and cut in pieces
1 cupful California walnuts, chopped
Mix the sugar, milk, and egg. Mix the remaining ingredients; then add to
the first mixture. Mix, and turn into an oiled baking-dish or pan. Bake in
a moderate oven from 30 to 40 minutes or until it is firm. Serve hot or
cold with plain or whipped cream.
QUESTIONS
How many dry, uncooked prunes are required to make 1 cupful of cooked
prunes? (See Questions, Lesson XVII.)
What are the prices per pound of figs and dates?
How many will the above recipes serve?
What ingredients in these puddings scorch readily? Why is Prune Pudding
surrounded with hot water during baking?
LESSON XIX
CEREALS: STARCH AND CELLULOSE
STARCH is a very important FUEL food; like sugar, it gives energy to the
body. Starch is closely related to sugar; it has much the same composition
and the same use in the body. In certain respects, however, starch differs
from sugar.
EXPERIMENT 14: THE STARCH TEST.--Put a drop of tincture of iodine on,--
corn-starch, flour, rice, cream of wheat, wheatena, oatmeal, tapioca,
potato, meat, and egg. What is the result?
If a substance contains starch, it changes to a blue color when tincture
of iodine is added to it.
From these experiments determine in which class--animal or vegetable--the
starchy foods belong.
EXPERIMENT 15: THE EFFECT OF COLD WATER ON STARCH.--Mix half a teaspoonful
of corn-starch or flour with cold water in a test tube or glass cup. What
happens to a solid substance when it is dissolved? (See Experiment 6.) Set
the mixture aside for a few minutes, then note its appearance. Is starch
soluble in cold water? What important difference between starch and sugar
does this experiment show?
EXPERIMENT 16: THE EFFECT OF HEAT ON STARCH.--Hold to the light the starch
and water mixture from Experiment 15. Is it opaque or transparent? Turn
the mixture into a saucepan, heat, and stir it; return the mixture to the
test tube or cup and again hold it to the light. What change was caused by
heating it? Set the mixture aside for a few minutes. Have the starch and
water separated as in the uncooked starch? Can you say it is insoluble,
like uncooked starch? Can you say it is soluble, like sugar? What term
indicating a half-dissolved condition can you apply to the cooked starch?
EXPERIMENT 17: STIFFENING OF COOKED STARCH.--Place the test tube
containing cooked starch from Experiment 16 in cold water. After ten
minutes examine it. Can you pour it out of the tube? How does cooked
starch change when cooled?
EXPERIMENT 18: THE STRUCTURE OF STARCH.--Examine starch under the
microscope. While you are still looking through the microscope, make a
drawing of several grains of starch. Insert this drawing in your notebook.
CELLULOSE.--Cellulose is a tough substance found in the fiber of wood. As
previously mentioned the outside covering of vegetables and fruits and
their interior framework contain much cellulose. The fibrous material
found in rolled oats consists almost entirely of cellulose.
EXPERIMENT 19: SEPARATION OF CELLULOSE AND STARCH.--Place a heaping
teaspoonful of rolled oats in a cup and add just enough water to cover it.
Allow it to stand for at least 15 minutes. Pour the mixture into a cheese-
cloth and press out the moisture and much of the starch, catching it in a
saucepan. Rinse the starch out of the cloth as thoroughly as possible by
holding it under running water. Examine the substance remaining in the
cloth. Tear it into pieces. Is it tough? Does it suggest any common
material? What is it? Heat the contents of the saucepan. What is this
substance?
The tiny grains of starch shown under the microscope (see Figure 23)
contain both starch and cellulose. The latter forms the outer covering of
the microscopic grains. Starchy vegetables contain much cellulose:
(a) in the outside covering; (b) in the interior framework;
(c) in the covering of the starch grains.
[Illustration: From Household Chemistry, by J. M. Blanchard. Figure
23.--Grains of Starch. a, potato starch; b, corn-starch.
(Much magnified.)]
Some plants rich in cellulose can be eaten in the raw state. But certain
fibrous foods, especially cereals or grains, are irritating if eaten in
the uncooked condition. It is necessary to soften them if used as food.
Now cellulose itself is not soluble in cold or hot water nor is it
softened by boiling in water. But other materials existing with cellulose
are softened or changed by cooking. Hence changes in these substances in
contact with the cellulose brought about by boiling water soften the food
and separate cellulose fibers.
Heat and moisture applied to starchy foods serve three important purposes:
(a) They soften the food; (b) they change the starch to a
paste or make it semisoluble; (c) they improve the flavor.
Cellulose is not a fuel material; it does not serve in the body as an
energy-giver. Its value in diet is due to the fact that it is bulky and
furnishes ballast for the alimentary canal. It stimulates the flow of the
digestive juices as it brushes against the walls of the digestive tract,
and thus aids in the digestion of foods and in the elimination of waste
material.
CARBOHYDRATE, A FOODSTUFF.--Because sugar, starch, and cellulose have
somewhat the same composition and some properties in common, they are
grouped into one class, viz. carbohydrate. Sugar, starch, and
cellulose are all included in the term carbohydrate. Carbohydrate is
one of the foodstuffs. Sugar is a food containing only the
carbohydrate foodstuff. Cereals contain not only carbohydrates but other
foodstuffs. They contain, however, a larger quantity of carbohydrate than
any of the other foodstuffs, for which reason they are classed as
carbohydrate-rich foods.
CEREALS.--Cereals are cultivated grasses, the seeds of which are used for
food. The most important are wheat, Indian corn or maize, rice, oats, rye,
and barley. From these many different kinds of flours, meals, and
breakfast foods are prepared.
Cereals rank high in nutritive value. Many of them contain about 75 per
cent of starch. They also contain ash and a substance which builds the
body. Because they are widely distributed in various climates, they have
an important place in man's diet.
At market one finds two classes of cereals sold as breakfast foods--(1)
the ready to eat and (2) the uncooked or partially cooked grains. The
ready-to-eat cereals cost much more per pound than the cereals that
require cooking. The difference in the price per pound, however, is not an
accurate difference in the cost of the two, for the cost of the fuel in
cooking grains at home must be taken into consideration.
Of the cereals that require cooking, those that are partially cooked are
doubtless the more popular. Many of these such as rolled oats or wheat are
steamed and rolled. Hence they take much less time to prepare in the home
kitchen than the uncooked grains.
All breakfast cereals require long cooking to make them most palatable,
the time of cooking depending upon the character of the cellulose and the
method of preparing the cereal for market.
Most partially cooked grains are improved by a longer cooking than is
usually given them. It is interesting to measure equal quantities of a
rolled cereal and cook one quantity for 20 minutes and the other for 1 1/2
hours and taste each. The superior flavor and texture of the well-cooked
cereal is well worth the additional length of time of cocking. Grains are
also found on sale in bulk and in package. The latter cost more but insure
greater cleanliness. Since, however, cereals sold in bulk are those that
require cooking, they will be thoroughly sterilized before serving and
need occasion no concern regarding their cleanliness.
GENERAL RULES FOR COOKING CEREALS.--Pour the cereal slowly into boiling
salted water. Cook directly over the flame for about 10 minutes. Then
place over boiling water and cook from 1/2 to 8 hours. Usually one
teaspoonful of salt is used for each cupful of cereal. The
quantity of water depends upon the kind of cereal. The double boiler is
particularly good for cooking cereals. The fireless cooker also is
a most satisfactory device for cooking these foods easily and
economically.
Starchy foods are most easily digested when well masticated. Dry foods
require more mastication than moist foods. It is well then to have the
water used in cooking the cereal entirely absorbed. If, when nearly done,
the cereal is too moist, uncover the vessel and cook until the excess of
water is evaporated.
Care should be taken, however, not to allow a tough skin to form on the
top of the cereal. This digests with difficulty. Its formation can be
prevented by keeping the cereal covered or by stirring occasionally.
Heat ready-to-eat cereals in the oven until they are crisp.
ROLLED OATS OR WHEAT
3 cupfuls boiling water
1 cupful cereal
1 teaspoonful salt
Prepare according to the general directions, cooking in the double boiler
at least 1 1/2 hours.
CREAM OF WHEAT OR WHEATENA
3 cupfuls boiling water
1/2 cupful cereal
1 teaspoonful salt
Prepare according to the general rule, cooking in the double boiler at
least 1/2 hour.
A few minutes before taking from the fire, 1/2 pound of dates, cleaned,
stoned, and cut into pieces, may be added. Raisins or figs may also be
used with Cream of Wheat and other cereals.
QUESTIONS
How would the temperature of boiling water be affected if a cupful of
cereal were poured into it all at once? From this explain why cereals
should be added slowly to the boiling water.
Compare the cooked and uncooked cereal. How does it change in appearance
and quantity?
Why are cereals not cooked entirely over the naked flame?
What is the price, weight, and measure of a package of Rolled Oats or
Wheat? Of a package of Cream of Wheat or Wheatena?
What is the cost of the quantity of cereal indicated in the recipes above?
Calculate the difference in the cost per pound of ready-to-eat and
uncooked cereals.
LESSON XX
CEREALS: RICE (A)
POLISHED AND UNPOLISHED RICE.--At market one finds two kinds of rice,--one
white and pearly in appearance called polished rice, and the other,
gray or brown and lusterless called unpolished rice. In preparing
rice for market, the outer husks of the grain are removed and the rice is
cleaned. It may then be sold as unpolished rice or it may be further
treated by rubbing or polishing to make it ready for market. Rice is
subjected to this latter process merely to satisfy the demand of
purchasers. The food value of polished rice is inferior to that of the
unpolished grain. Much valuable ash and other material are lost. Indeed, a
certain disease, [Footnote 22: Beri-beri, a disease common among those
inhabitants of Oriental countries whose diet consists almost entirely of
polished rice and fish.] due to improper nourishment, has been cured by
giving the sufferer rice polishings. The flavor of rice is also impaired
by polishing it. Unpolished rice is much the more valuable food. It
requires, however, longer cooking than polished rice. Soaking in water
before cooking shortens the length of time required for cooking.
TO CLEAN RICE.--To wash rice, put it in a strainer and allow the water
from a faucet to run through the strainer. Rub the rice between the hands.
RICE (cooked over boiling water)
3 cupfuls boiling water
1 teaspoonful salt
1 cupful rice
Follow the General Rules for Cooking Cereals; when the rice is added to
the boiling water, stir it to prevent adhering to the pan. Cook over hot
water, i.e. in a double boiler, until the grains are soft (usually
about 45 minutes).
The above ingredients may be placed in a steamer (see Figure 31) and
cooked in steam until the rice grains are tender. It is then called
Steamed Rice.
Rice is most palatable combined with various fruits.
ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS
[Illustration: FIGURE 24--A CUPFUL OF RICE BEFORE AND AFTER BOILING The
large utensil was required to boil it, the water drained from it is in the
jar]
BOILED RICE [Footnote 23: Reserve some of the cooked rice of this lesson
for the following lesson.]
3 quarts boiling water
1 cupful rice
2 teaspoonfuls salt
Add the salt to the boiling water. When the water boils rapidly, add the
rice slowly, so that the water does not stop boiling. Boil rapidly
for 20 minutes or until the grains are soft. Turn into a colander or
strainer to drain. Rinse with hot water, drain well, then sprinkle with
salt.
Save the water from the Boiled Rice for the experiment below and for
preparing Cheese Sauce for class work.
When the rice is boiling, decide whether or not it should be covered
tightly.
EXPERIMENT 20 THE DIFFERENCE IN NUTRITIVE VALUE OF BOILED RICE AND RICE
COOKED OVER BOILING WATER--Pour a little of the water from the boiled rice
into a test tube. Cool the rice water and test it with iodine for starch.
Is any of the starch from rice cooked over boiling water wasted? Which
method of cooking rice leaves more nutriment in the cooked product?
CHEESE SAUCE (made with rice water)
1 pint rice water
1 tablespoonful corn-starch
1 teaspoonful salt
1/4 teaspoonful mustard
1/6 teaspoonful paprika
1/2 cupful cheese grated or cut into pieces
Mix the corn-starch with about 2 tablespoonfuls of cold rice water. Heat
the remainder of the liquid. Add the corn-starch mixture to the hot rice
water. Stir and cook for about 10 minutes. Then add the seasonings and
cheese. Continue stirring and cooking until the cheese is blended with the
other ingredients. Serve hot over cooked rice.
One cupful of tomatoes or a small quantity of pimentos (cut into pieces)
may be added along with the cheese to the sauce. If pimentos are used, the
paprika should be omitted.
QUESTIONS
How is rice tested for sufficient cooking?
Why does rice take a shorter time to cook than most of the wheat and oat
foods? (See Cereals.)
Note the difference in the quantity of water used for boiled rice and for
rice cooked over boiling water. Note that the saucepan is used for cooking
one and the double boiler for cooking the other. From this explain the
reason for the difference in the quantity of water used.
Which method of cooking rice takes longer? Explain the difference in the
length of time of cooking.
Measure the rice after cooking. How much has it increased in bulk? If one
desired 2 cupfuls of cooked rice, how much uncooked rice should be used?
Compare the individual grains of rice cooked in boiling water and rice
cooked over boiling water,--are the grains separated or pasted together?
Explain the difference in appearance.
What ingredients do cereals contain that make it possible to mold them
(see Experiment 17)? Which is the better for molding,--boiled rice or
rice cooked over boiling water? Why?
What is the advantage in using rice water rather than plain water to
prepare Cheese Sauce?
What other use could be made of rice water?
LESSON XXI
CEREALS: RICE (B)
RICE PUDDING
Steamed rice may be prepared for a simple dessert by using both milk and
water. Follow the recipe for Rice Cooked over Boiling Water, using 1 1/2
cupfuls of water and l 1/2 cupfuls of milk. Cook the water and rice until
the water is absorbed, add the milk, and continue cooking over water.
Serve with cream and sugar, or with a suitable sauce.
RICE PUDDING (made with cooked rice) [Footnote 24: A portion of the rice
cooked in the previous lesson may be utilized in making this pudding.]
2 cupfuls cooked rice
3/4 - 1 cupful milk
1/2 cupful raisins
1/3 cupful sugar
Grated rind 1/2 lemon
These ingredients may be cooked in several different ways. By changing the
flavoring, method of serving, and sauce, rice desserts of pleasing variety
may be made from the materials above.
The pudding may be baked in the following manner: Mix the
ingredients, place in a buttered baking-dish, and bake in a slow oven
until the rice has absorbed the milk and is brown. Vanilla or nutmeg, or
both, may be substituted for the lemon rind.
This dessert may be cooked over water by mixing the ingredients in
the top of a double boiler and cooking until the milk is absorbed. Then
butter hot custard cups or tea cups and press some rice into each. Turn
out at once and serve with Caramel, Chocolate, or other sauce.
Lemon Sauce, in which dates, cut into pieces, have been cooked, makes a
tasty sauce for this pudding. When Lemon Sauce and dates are used, the
raisins should be omitted and the pudding flavored with nutmeg.
CARAMEL SAUCE
1/3 cupful sugar
2 tablespoonfuls flour
1 tablespoonful butter or substitute
1 cupful milk
1/2 teaspoonful vanilla
Salt
Mix the sugar, flour, and butter in a frying pan; then heat the mixture to
caramelize the sugar, stirring constantly. Scald the milk in a double
boiler. When the sugar is caramelized, add it to the hot milk and heat the
mixture until the caramelized sugar is dissolved. Add the salt and
vanilla. [Footnote 25: If the sauce is to be served cold, it is well to
allow the cooked mixture to cool before adding the vanilla (see
Flavoring Extracts).] Serve hot or cold over puddings.
QUESTIONS
Why is it advisable to use a double boiler for cooking rice? (See Lesson
XX)
If rice is cooked in a double boiler and milk is to be added, why should
not the milk be added until the rice mixture is placed over hot water?
(See statement regarding the scorching of milk in Questions, Lesson
XXIV)
Which method of cooking the Rice Pudding--baking or cooking over water--
requires more milk? Explain your answer. Also explain why a definite
quantity of milk cannot be stated in the recipe.
See "Note," Lesson XVI. Is any of the injurious substance formed in
caramelizing sugar present in Caramel Sauce?
LESSON XXII
CEREALS AND THE FIRELESS COOKER
THE FIRELESS COOKER.--The fact that fuels are expensive and that the
supply of some fuels is diminishing, makes it advisable to conserve heat.
This can be done in no more satisfactory way than by means of a fireless
cooker.
It has been said that future historians in summing up the great
achievements of the first quarter of the twentieth century will probably
name as the most important, wireless telegraphy, aviation, and fireless
cookery. The fireless cooker cannot be used with all methods of cooking,
but its possibilities are many.
[Illustration: Courtesy of McCray Refrigerator Co FIGURE 25.
--INSULATED WALL OF A REFRIGERATOR.]
THE PRINCIPLE OF FIRELESS COOKERY.--In Experiment 2 it was found that wood
did not transmit heat rapidly, while tin did. Another familiar
illustration will show the difference between wood and metal in
transmitting heat. A metal door knob feels very cold on a winter day,
because the metal conducts the heat away from the hand rapidly, while a
wooden knob is comfortable to touch. Wood is termed a poor conductor of
heat. Metals are good conductors of heat.
Paper, hay, excelsior, sawdust, cork, wool, feathers, and many other
materials are poor conductors of heat. If any hot substance is surrounded
by any of these poor conducting materials, the heat of that substance is
retained for some time. Also, if any cold substance is surrounded by a
poor conductor, the substance remains cold. In throwing a piece of carpet
or newspaper over an ice cream freezer, to prevent the ice from melting,
one makes use of the latter principle.
[Illustration: FIGURE 26.--FIRELESS COOKER HAVING EXCELSIOR PACKING.]
The walls of a well-built refrigerator consist of a number of layers of
non-conducting materials (see Figure 25).
To understand the principle involved in "cooking without fire," try the
following:
EXPERIMENT 12: RETENTION OF HEAT.--Fill 2 tin measuring cups half full of
boiling water. Immediately inclose one cup of water in a paper bag or wrap
paper about it so there will be considerable air space between the cup and
paper. After 15 minutes, insert a thermometer into the water in each of
the cups. Which is hotter? What has "kept in" the heat of the hotter
water?
The fireless cooker is a device containing cooking kettles which are
surrounded by some poor conductor. When food is heated thoroughly, the
heat can be retained for a number of hours by placing the hot food in the
fireless cooker.
[Illustration: FIGURE 27--FIRELESS COOKER WITH STONE DISKS Note the
kettles of various shapes]
In the ordinary fireless cooker it is possible to cook all foods that can
be cooked in water at a temperature below the boiling point of water,
i. e. simmering temperature. Another type of fireless cooker has a
metallic or an enamel lining and is provided with movable stone disks.
Both the stones and food are heated on a range and then introduced into
the cooker in such a way that the stones are under and over the kettle of
food. By this arrangement, foods can be cooked at a higher temperature
than in the ordinary fireless cooker (see Figures 26 and 27).
There are also electric fireless cookers (see Figure 28). Such cookers are
equipped with a heating element which is placed in the bottom of the
insulated box. With these it is not necessary to heat the food before
placing it in the cooker. The uncooked food is put into the cooker and the
current turned on. By means of a clock arrangement the current may be cut
off when the desired length of time of heating has passed.
[Illustration: Courtesy of the Standard Electric Stove Co FIGURE
28.--ELECTRIC FIRELESS COOKER. Has a heating element in the bottom of the
cooker.]
The principle of the fireless cooker is used on some of the modern gas and
electric ranges. The walls of the ovens of these ranges are surrounded by
insulating materials. When an oven is heated and has reached the desired
temperature, the gas or electricity is cut off, but the baking temperature
is retained for some time. The top burners of some gas ranges have a
fireless cooker attachment in the form of an insulated hood. The food is
first heated over the burner, then the hood is lowered over the food, and
the gas is cut off. The food continues to cook, however, by the retained
heat (see Figure 29).
SUGGESTIONS FOR USING A FIRELESS COOKER.--One should keep the following in
mind in using the ordinary fireless cooker:
[Illustration: Courtesy of the Chambers Manufacturing Co. FIGURE
29.--GAS RANGE HAVING FIRELESS COOKER ATTACHMENT, INSULATED OVEN AND
HOODS.]
1. Have the food heated thoroughly before placing in the fireless cooker.
(This direction does not apply to an electrical fireless cooker such as
shown in Figure 28.) If the foods are small, as cereals, 5 minutes'
boiling is usually sufficient cooking on the range; if large in size, as a
piece of beef, 30 minutes is required to heat it through.
2. After heating, place the covered kettle containing the food into
the cooker immediately. It is well to have the cooker near the range so as
to waste but little heat while getting the food into the cooker.
3. The kettle should be well filled. A small quantity of food should not
be placed in a large kettle. It is possible, however, to fill the large
kettle almost full of boiling water, then rest a wire rack on the rim of
the kettle and place a small pan containing the food in the wire rack (see
Figure 26). Or place the food in a pan with sloping sides and broad rim,
such as a "pudding pan," which may be set in the large kettle so as to
rest on the rim.
4. Do not open the cooker to "see how the food is getting along." If the
box is opened, the food must be removed at once. The food may, however, be
reheated and returned to the cooker. It is sometimes necessary to follow
this plan, where food requires very long cooking.
5. The length of time a food must be left in the fireless cooker varies
with the kind of food and style of cooker. In many of the homemade boxes,
the water does not remain hot enough for cooking after 12 hours; in some,
for not more than 8 hours. If foods require longer cooking than this, they
should be removed and reheated as mentioned above. Food should never be
allowed to become cool in a fireless cooker.
6. After using any type of fireless cooker, let the lid remain wide open
for 2 or 3 hours. Except when in use do not close it tightly.
Every thrifty housekeeper should possess and use a fireless cooker. As has
been mentioned, it saves fuel, prevents the strong odor of food permeating
all parts of the house, lessens work and care in cooking, prevents burning
and scorching, and provides workers and picnickers with warm lunches. A
fireless cooker can be made satisfactorily at home with little expenditure
of effort and money. It has been found that paper crumpled so as to afford
considerable air space is a satisfactory non-conducting material for a
fireless cooker. Detailed directions for making a fireless cooker are
given in United States Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 771,
"Homemade Fireless Cookers and Their Use" and in several popular books.
CORN-MEAL MUSH
4 cupfuls boiling water
1 cupful corn-meal
1 teaspoonful salt
Mix the ingredients in the small pan of the fireless cooker and cook
directly over the flame of a range, boiling for 5 minutes, and stirring
occasionally. Cover and place in the large kettle of the fireless cooker
which contains boiling water. Place in a fireless cooker for 5 to 10
hours.
NOTE.--If corn-meal mush is to be cooked over a flame in a double boiler,
prepare according to the general rule for cereals and cook over boiling
water for at least 3 hours.
CORN-MEAL MUSH FOR "FRYING"
2 cupfuls corn-meal
2 tablespoonfuls flour
2 teaspoonfuls salt
2 cupfuls cold water
1 quart boiling water
Mix the dry ingredients, add the cold water, and mix thoroughly. Place the
boiling water in the small pan of the fireless cooker. Stir the corn-meal
mixture into the boiling water and cook 10 minutes directly over the
flame, stirring constantly. Cover and place in the large kettle of boiling
water. Place in the fireless cooker 5 to 10 hours. Remove the pan of mush
from the water and allow the mush to cool.
NOTE.--Corn-meal Mush for frying may be cooked over a flame in a double
boiler according to the recipe given above. Cook it for several hours.
RICE AND TOMATOES
1/2 cupful rice
1 tablespoonful butter or substitute
1/2 teaspoonful celery salt
l-1/4 cupfuls boiling water
1 cupful tomatoes
1 slice onion
1 teaspoonful salt
1/8 teaspoonful pepper
In the small pan of the fireless cooker cook (over a flame) the rice,
onion, and fat, stirring constantly until they are slightly brown. Add
boiling water and cook until the water is almost absorbed. Add the
tomatoes and seasoning and heat the mixture until it boils. Cover and
place in the large kettle of boiling water belonging to the fireless
cooker. Place in the fireless cooker for 3/4 hour. This food may be served
as a border around meat.
QUESTIONS
In your own way, explain the principle of "cooking without fire."
What ingredient does Corn-meal Mush for "Frying" contain that plain Corn-
meal Mush does not? What is the use of this ingredient in Corn-meal Mush
for "Frying"? (See Wheat Flour and Corn-meal.)
How does the method of preparing Corn-meal Mush for "Frying" differ from
the usual method of cooking cereals?
How many cupfuls of corn-meal in one pound? Of rice in one pound? What is
the price per pound of corn-meal and rice?
LESSON XXIII
CEREALS FOR FRYING OR BAKING
"FRIED" OR BAKED MUSH
Cut Corn-meal Mush for "Frying" into slices 1/3 inch thick. Dip each slice
in flour and brown in a little hot fat (butter or substitute, or a slice
of salt pork fat may be used).
The slices of mush may be spread with softened fat, or dipped in melted
fat, and browned in the oven or broiling oven.
Instead of spreading the mush with fat, the slices may be dipped in
cracker or fine dried bread crumbs, then dipped into egg mixture--1 egg
beaten and diluted with 1 tablespoonful of water--and again dipped into
cracker or bread crumbs. Place the "breaded slices" in a dripping pan, put
fat in bits over the top and bake for about half a hour or until the
crumbs are brown.
Hot mush may be served plain or with sirup.
In the same way, left-over wheatena, cream of wheat, farina, and other
breakfast cereals may be molded, cooled, and then "fried" or baked.
FRENCH TOAST
1 or 2 eggs
1 cupful milk
1/4 teaspoonful salt
6 or 8 slices of stale bread
Beat the eggs slightly, add the salt and milk, and dip the bread in the
mixture. Heat a griddle or "frying" pan and place a little butter or
substitute, or a combination of butter and some other fat, in the pan.
Brown the bread on one side in the hot fat. Place a bit of fat on the top
of each slice, turn, and brown the other side. Serve hot. A mixture of
powdered sugar and cinnamon, or sirup is sometimes used in serving French
Toast.
SIRUP
1/2 cupful corn sirup (dark)
1/4 cupful boiling water
2 tablespoonfuls brown sugar
1/8 teaspoonful salt
1 teaspoonful vanilla
Mix the corn sirup, sugar, water, and salt. Heat until the boiling point
is reached. Cool and then add the vanilla. If it is desired to serve the
sirup hot, its flavor is improved by the addition of 1 teaspoonful of
butter.
QUESTIONS
In preparing French Toast, what care must be taken in dipping the stale
bread in the milk and egg mixture?
Since it is desirable to serve the slices of toast whole, which are the
better for French Toast,--large or small pieces of bread?
What is the advantage of placing a bit of fat on each slice of bread just
before turning it?
Why is it advisable to add butter to the sirup only when the latter is to
be served hot?
What is the purpose of adding sugar to corn sirup? (See Corn
Sirup.)
LESSON XXIV
POWDERED CEREALS USED FOR THICKENING
EXPERIMENT 22: STARCH GRAINS AND BOILING WATER.--Pour 2 tablespoonfuls of
boiling water over 1 teaspoonful of flour. Stir and heat over the flame.
Is the mixture smooth? Examine the center of a "Jump." How does it compare
with uncooked starch? Are all the starch grains swelled and semisoluble?
EXPERIMENT 23: SEPARATION OF STARCH GRAINS WITH COLD WATER.--Mix 1
teaspoonful of flour with 1 teaspoonful of water. Add 2 tablespoonfuls of
boiling water, stir, and heat. Is the mixture smooth? Explain clearly the
use of cold water in this mixture.
EXPERIMENT 24: SEPARATION OF STARCH GRAINS WITH SUGAR.--Mix 1 teaspoonful
of flour with 1 teaspoonful of sugar. Add 2 table-spoonfuls of boiling
water, stir, and heat. Is the mixture smooth? Carefully explain the use of
sugar in the mixture.
EXPERIMENT 25: SEPARATION OF STARCH GRAINS WITH FAT.--Mix 1 teaspoonful of
flour with 1 teaspoonful of fat. Add 2 tablespoonfuls of boiling water,
stir, and heat. Is the mixture smooth? Explain the use of fat in this
mixture.
To cook starch successfully, it is necessary to swell every grain of
starch contained in the starchy food. To accomplish this each grain must
be surrounded by heat and moisture. In vegetables and cereals, the
cellular framework separates the starch grains so that they are uniformly
cooked. Since there is nothing to separate the grains in a powdered
starchy substance, as shown in the foregoing experiments, it becomes
necessary to mix it with certain materials so that the heat and moisture
can penetrate every grain at the same time.
BLANC MANGE
2 cupfuls milk
1/4 cupful corn-starch
1/2 cupful sugar
2 teaspoonfuls vanilla
Nutmeg
1/8 teaspoonful salt
Scald the milk in a double boiler. Mix the sugar and corn-starch. Add the
hot milk slowly to the sugar and corn-starch mixture, stirring rapidly.
Return to the double boiler and cook 30 minutes, stir rapidly until the
mixture thickens. Add the salt and flavoring and pour into a mold which
has been moistened with cold water. Cool, turn from the mold, and serve
with sugar and cream.
If a softer and more creamy dessert is desired, the corn-starch may be
reduced to 3 tablespoonfuls. If this quantity of thickening is used, the
cooked dessert should be poured into sherbet glasses or other suitable
dishes for serving; it will not become stiff enough to mold.
NOTE.--While cooking Blanc Mange, note the number of minutes that is
required to thicken the mixture and the length of time of cooking given in
the recipe. Why is it necessary to cook the mixture for so long a time
after it thickens? (See Cereals.)
CHOCOLATE CORN-STARCH PUDDING
Proceed as for Blanc Mange, using 3/8 cupful of sugar instead of 1/4
cupful. Cut into pieces 1 square (i.e. 1 ounce) of Baker's
chocolate. Add to it 1/4 cupful of boiling water. Stir and heat until
smooth and thoroughly blended. Add this to the corn-starch mixture just
before taking from the fire. Add 1/2 teaspoonful of vanilla. Mold and
serve as Blanc Mange.
Note that the quantity of sugar is increased when chocolate is added to
the corn-starch mixture. Chocolate mixtures require considerable sugar to
make them tasty.
3 tablespoonfuls of cocoa may be substituted for the chocolate. When this
is done, mix the cocoa with the corn-starch and sugar and add no water to
it. Proceed as in making plain Blanc Mange.
QUESTIONS
Name three substances that can be used to prevent the lumping of powdered
cereals used for thickening.
Give the reason for mixing the sugar, corn-starch, and hot milk of Blanc
Mange as directed.
For how long a time after placing in the double boiler is it necessary to
stir the corn-starch, sugar, and hot milk mixture?
Milk, especially a milk and starchy mixture, scorches readily (see
Scalding Milk). From this explain why Blanc Mange is cooked
entirely over boiling water, and not over the flame and then in a double
boiler, as cereals.
Why is the flavoring not added while the mixture is cooking (see
Flavoring Extracts)?
What is the price per package of corn-starch?
How much does a package of corn-starch weigh and measure?
Which material--flour or corn-starch--is the cheaper to use for
thickening?
How many persons does the quantity of Blanc Mange above serve?
LESSON XXV
TOAST: DIGESTION OF STARCH
EXPERIMENT 26: CHANGE OF STARCH INTO DEXTRIN.--Place a teaspoonful of
flour in a frying pan and heat slowly until it becomes very dark
brown and uniform in color. Put a little of the browned flour
into a test tube, add water, then shake. Add a few drops of iodine. What
indicates the presence of starch? Is starch present?
The starch has been changed to dextrin. Dextrin gives a purple (reddish
blue) color when treated with iodine.
EXPERIMENT 27: THE SOLUBILITY OF DEXTRIN.--Pour the remainder of the
browned flour from Experiment 26 into a test tube. Add water and shake.
Pour through filter paper [Footnote 26: Liquids pass through filter paper,
but solids do not. Hence if a mixture of solid and liquid is poured upon
filter paper, the liquid passes through, but the solid remains on the
paper.] into another test tube (see Figure 30). Notice the color of the
liquid that has been filtered. Add a few drops of iodine to the filtered
liquid. Is dextrin present? Is dextrin soluble in water? [Illustration:
Figure 30.--Method of Folding Filter Paper.]
From these experiments, we find that dry heat has changed insoluble starch
into a soluble substance called dextrin. Dextrin is found in small
amounts in the crust of bread and in toast.
DIGESTION OF STARCH.--It was found in a previous lesson (Lesson XVI) that
sugar is entirely soluble in water, and since digestion and solution are
closely related, the digestion of some sugar is simple. Starch was found
to be insoluble in cold water and only semi-soluble in hot water. In the
process of digestion it would seem that some change must take place in the
starch to make it soluble. Such a change does take place; starch is
changed into a soluble carbohydrate or a sugar before it is digested.
Substances called enzymes which are in the saliva of the mouth
[Footnote 27: Ptyalin and amylopsin are the ferments found in the mouth
and intestines, respectively.] and in the digestive juices of the
intestines [Footnote 28: Ptyalin and amylopsin are the ferments found in
the mouth and intestines, respectively.] cause this change. To show that
this change takes place to some extent in the mouth, try the following
experiments:
EXPERIMENT 28: STARCH IN CRACKER.--Test a bit of cracker with iodine for
starch. What indicates the presence of starch? Does the cracker contain
starch?
EXPERIMENT 29: ACTION OF SALIVA UPON STARCH.--Thoroughly chew a bit of
cracker. As you chew the cracker, note that it becomes sweeter in flavor.
Remove from the mouth, and place upon a piece of paper. Test it with
iodine. A purple (reddish blue) color indicates a soluble carbohydrate
(see Experiment 27). What substance does the masticated cracker contain?
Explain the change that has taken place in the cracker by mastication.
TOAST.--Bread is properly toasted when it is dried out thoroughly and then
browned on the outside. Both the crumb and the crust of the toast are thus
made crisp. Crisp toast crumbles during mastication.
Fresh bread contains much moisture. When it is toasted quickly, the
moisture is inclosed in the interior of the slice and the resulting toast
is very soft. This kind of toast is almost as difficult to digest as fresh
bread. Instead of toast breaking into bits during digestion, it remains in
a solid mass and is digested with difficulty.
Give at least two practical methods of toasting bread to produce the
desired kind of toast.
CREAM TOAST
1 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
1/2 teaspoonful salt
2 tablespoonfuls flour
2 cupfuls milk or cream
6 to 8 slices of toast
Heat the fat; when it bubbles, add the flour and salt, mixing thoroughly.
Add a small portion of the milk. Heat and stir continually until it
thickens. Add another portion of the milk and proceed as before. Continue
until all the milk has been added. The sauce is sufficiently cooked when
it reaches the boiling point after the last quantity of milk has been
added. Pour this sauce over dry or moist toast.
Moist toast is prepared by dipping dry toast quickly into hot,
salted water or hot milk. If the crust has not been cut from bread for
toasting, only the outer edges of the toast may be moistened.
The flavor of butter in Cream Toast is pleasing. To secure some butter
flavor and at the same time economize, a combination of butter and a mild
flavored fat or oil may be used.
QUESTIONS
Give the reason for mixing flour and fat as directed in White Sauce (see
Experiment 25).
What is the proportion of fat and flour? What is the proportion of flour
and liquid? Using this proportion, how much flour should be used for one
cupful of liquid?
What is the use of flour in White Sauce?
Note the consistency of the sauce, and keep it in mind as a standard of
comparison for the thickness of other sauces.
What should be the condition of the crumb of toast to be most quickly
digested? Give reasons for your answer.
LESSON XXVI
ROOT VEGETABLES (A)
Plant Roots.--Plants used for food have their stored-up food largely in
the form of starch and to some extent in the form of sugar. The parts of
the plant underneath the ground as well as the seeds serve as a storehouse
for the plant. All roots and tubers contain carbohydrates, although not in
so large a proportion as cereals. Those most commonly used as foods are
potatoes, tapioca, parsnips, carrots, beets, and turnips. Potatoes and
tapioca contain the most starch in this group. Parsnips, carrots, and
beets contain a little starch and much sugar. Turnips contain much
cellulose. Carrots, parsnips, and beets are also rich in cellulose.
All root vegetables as well as leaf and stem vegetables contain ash.
Comparison of Vegetables Cooked with or without the Skins, and in Water or
in Steam [Footnote 29: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--This lesson can be conducted
most expeditiously by dividing the class into groups of six and having
each group clean, prepare, and cook in water and in steam, potatoes and
carrots as directed above.]--Clean, prepare, and cook in water pared and
unpared potatoes, scraped and unscraped carrots, and cook in steam pared
potatoes and scraped carrots.
Clean the vegetables by scrubbing with a brush; cook them in gently
boiling water. Use the same quantity of water in each case (when
cooked in water) and add one teaspoonful of salt to each quart of water.
When the vegetables are tender (test with a fork or knitting needle),
drain each thoroughly, catching the water in a bowl. Dry each vegetable by
shaking the saucepan containing it over a flame.
Pour into a test tube a little of the water from each water-cooked
vegetable; cool, and then test with iodine for starch.
Also pour some of the water from each water-cooked vegetable in an
evaporating dish. Boil the water until the moisture is entirely
evaporated. Then continue to heat the contents of the dish until charred
material appears and then disappears. Is any solid material left? If so,
it is mineral matter.
Which vegetables,--those cooked (in water) with or without the skins,--
lose the more starch and ash?
Which vegetables without the skins,--those cooked in water or those cooked
in steam,--lose the more starch and ash?
As far as saving nutriment is concerned, which method of preparation is
better for vegetables cooked in water? Which method of cooking is better
for vegetables without the skins?
Peel the vegetables that were cooked with the skins. Cut all into dice.
Prepare about half as much White Sauce as you have of the
vegetable, using the ingredients for the sauce in the following
proportion:
1 1/2 tablespoonfuls flour
1/2 teaspoonful salt
1 tablespoonful butter or substitute
1 cupful liquid
For the liquid of the sauce for those vegetables cooked in water
without the skins, use half milk and half vegetable stock. Use only milk
for the sauce for the vegetables cooked in water with the skins and for
steamed vegetables. (For method of making White Sauce, see Cream
Toast) Add the vegetables to the sauce, reheat, and serve. Divide the
vegetables among the pupils of each group so that each tastes the six
vegetables.
Which vegetables,--those cooked with or without the skins,--have the more
pleasing color?
Which vegetables,--those cooked with or without the skins,--have the more
pleasing flavor?
As far as appearance and flavor are concerned, which method of preparation
is better for potatoes? Which method for carrots?
As far as both nutriment and flavor are concerned, which method of cooking
is better for both vegetables?
Suggestions for Cooking Root Vegetables.--All vegetables growing beneath
the ground should be cleaned by scrubbing with a small brush. Unless a
vegetable is dried or wilted, it should not be soaked in water for any
length of time before cooking.
The comparison just made shows that the outside skins of vegetables should
not be removed before cooking in water if we wish to retain all the
nutriment. There are some who contend, however, that a more delicate and
pleasing flavor results when old and strong-flavored vegetables have their
skins removed before cooking, and that the flavor is more to be desired
than a saving of all nutrients. Often vegetables are more pleasing in
color when cooked without their skins.
The nutrients lost by paring root vegetables and cooking them in water
consist not only of carbohydrates, but of ash and other valuable
materials. [Footnote 30: Vitamines, see Division Seven]
Satisfactory results may be obtained by baking or steaming
vegetables. By using the latter method, vegetables can be pared and cut
into pieces and then cooked with little loss of nutrients. It has been
pointed out, [Footnote 31: See Journal of Home Economics, Vol. XI (May,
1919), "Changes in the Food Value of Vegetables," by Minna C. Denton.]
however, that there may be considerable loss of nutrients in steamed
vegetables. The extent of the loss depends in part upon the type of
steamer and the method of using it. If the bottom of the upper pan of a
steamer is perforated and the vegetables are placed in contact with the
perforated portion, the condensed steam "washes" the mineral matter from
the vegetable. This "vegetable broth" then drops into the lower pan of the
steamer.
An evidence of this can be secured by steaming spinach or squash in the
manner described above and observing the coloring which appears in the
water beneath the steaming vegetable. Loss of nutrients in such a steamer
can be avoided by placing the vegetable in a pan or plate and inserting
the latter in the upper portion of the steamer. The pan or plate should,
of course, be of smaller diameter than the top of the steamer. By using
the type of steamer which has perforations at the top of the upper pan
(see Figure 31), no loss of nutrients occurs, provided the accumulated
vegetable broth is used.
[Illustration: Courtesy of Geo H Bowman Co FIGURE 31.--UTENSIL FOR
STEAMING--A "STEAMER"]
Care should also be taken not to steam vegetables for long periods at a
very high temperature as is sometimes done in using the pressure cooker.
This results in both loss of nutrients and flavor.
If starchy vegetables are cooked in water, when tender immediately drain
away the water and dry them. Serve at once or let them remain uncovered in
a warm place. The steam is thus allowed to escape. Condensed steam makes
starchy vegetables soggy.
BOILED POTATOES
If potatoes are to be cooked without their skins, pare them as thin as
possible, or in the case of new potatoes, scrape them. Cut away any green
portion [Footnote 32: Green spots on potatoes are caused by the tubers
growing too near the surface of the ground. This colored portion contains
an injurious substance called solanin.] which appears on the potato. If
the potatoes are sprouted, [Footnote 33: Sprouted potatoes also contain
some solanin. Potatoes should not be allowed to sprout since nutritious
material is used up by the growing sprouts and, as mentioned above, an
injurious material is formed. Potatoes can be prevented from sprouting by
storing them in a dry, dark, cool place.] also cut away the portion around
the sprouts.
In cooking potatoes in water, follow the directions given on page 59,
Cooking Vegetables in Water. When they are tender, drain off the water
immediately; shake gently and dry on the back of the range with the
saucepan uncovered or with a cloth folded over the top to absorb the
moisture. Sprinkle generously with salt. Boiled potatoes may be put
through a ricer before serving.
CREAMED AND SCALLOPED VEGETABLES.--Cooked vegetables may be creamed by
cutting them into cubes, adding White Sauce, and then reheating. If the
cut vegetables are cold, they can be heated by adding them to the sauce
with the last portion of liquid. By the time the sauce reaches the boiling
point, the vegetables will be heated. Care should be taken not to break
the vegetables while heating them in the sauce. Care should also be taken
to prevent the sauce from scorching. An asbestos mat over a gas burner is
desirable for this purpose. Use one part of White Sauce with 2 or 3 parts
of diced vegetables.
Vegetables may be scalloped by placing Creamed Vegetables in an oiled
baking-dish, covering with buttered crumbs, and browning in the oven.
WHITE SAUCE FOR VEGETABLES
1 1/2 tablespoonfuls flour
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