School and Home Cooking by Carlotta C. Greer Published: 1920
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DIVISION ELEVEN
QUICK BREADS: DROP BATTERS
LESSON CXX
FINE AND COARSE FLOURS--MUFFINS
DIFFERENCES IN WHEAT FLOURS.--Examine white flour, whole wheat flour, and
graham flour. Notice the difference in color, grittiness, and quantity of
bran (cellulose).
As has been mentioned before, all cereals or grains have an outer hard
covering of cellulose (see Cellulose). Cereals also contain a germ
from which the young plant springs. In the preparation of fine flours, the
germ and most of the cellulose covering are removed. Whole wheat
(erroneously named) has part of the outer covering removed. Graham
[Footnote 91: Graham flour is so called because Dr. Sylvester Graham
advocated the use of the entire grain and devised a method of preparing
it.] flour, properly made, contains all the materials of the wheat grain.
The germ is rich in fat, protein, and ash. The outer part, called
bran, contains more ash, fat, and protein than does the center of
the grain. Hence with the removal of the germ and bran, much of the
protein and ash is lost (see Figure 85). However, much graham flour is a
mixture of inferior flour and bran.
THE MILLING OF FLOUR.--In the milling of fine flour, the wheat kernels are
passed through a series of rollers and sifters that crush the wheat and
separate the bran from the other materials. The greater the number of
times the flour is subjected to the rolling and sifting process, the more
thoroughly are the parts of the grain separated and the more finely are
they crushed. When the separation is complete, the resulting fine flour
consists almost entirely of the center of the crushed grains (called
middlings). Flour made with fewer rollings and siftings contains
more of the outer coats. In general, the term patent is applied to
flour made from the middlings. The flour containing more of the outer
coats is called baker's or family flour. Patent flour contains more
starch than does baker's flour while baker's flour contains more protein
than does patent flour. The terms patent and baker's vary in
meaning, however, in different localities.
[Illustration: From Maine Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No.
103. FIGURE 85.--LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF WHEAT GRAIN SHOWING BRAN
(outer coatings), FLOURY PART (interior of grain), AND GERM (base of
grain).]
VALUE OF COARSE FLOUR.--Analyses show that graham and whole wheat flours
contain more protein and ash than fine white flour. So it would seem that
breads made from these coarser flours furnish more body-building material.
But investigations have shown that the protein contained in the coarse
flours is not entirely assimilated and that about the same quantity of
protein is digested and absorbed from fine as from coarse flours.
The coarser grain products, however, have more available ash than the fine
flours. Indeed, experiments show that the bran of coarse cereals is a
valuable source of ash [Footnote 92: See "Chemistry of Food and
Nutrition," Second Edition, H. C. Sherman, p. 306, "Grain Products," and
p. 308.] and that whole wheat flour is a more complete food than fine or
bolted wheat flour. [Footnote 93: See "The Newer Knowledge of Nutrition,"
E.V. McCollum, p.140.] Doubtless, for many persons, whole wheat foods are
more beneficial than fine flour products.
PER CENT OF NUTRIENTS; NUTRITIVE VALUES.--The per cent of nutrients in a
food does not always indicate the quantity of nourishment it will yield.
The nutrient must be in a condition to be absorbed. Wheat grains contain
as much protein when whole as when ground into meal, yet uncooked whole
wheat grains yield little nourishment to the body. They pass through the
system with much nutriment unextracted. Even if the unbroken grains are
thoroughly cooked, they will not furnish as much nourishment to the body
as they will when in the form of meal.
In the consideration of nutritive value, the personal factor enters, for
some persons assimilate food much more easily or completely than others.
In summing up what has been said, it will be seen that three factors
determine the nutritive value of a food: (a) per cent of nutrients,
(b) form of nutrients, and (c) personal digestive
characteristics.
DROP BATTERS.--All batters can be stirred with a spoon. Drop batters are
somewhat stiffer than pour batters. They contain, approximately, two
parts of flour to one part of moisture. Compare the Plain Muffin
recipe below with that for Popovers. Note how the recipes differ in the
quantity of flour used. Why do muffins contain baking powder, while
popovers do not? Muffin mixture is a typical drop batter.
PLAIN MUFFINS
2 cupfuls flour
3 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder
1/2 teaspoonful salt
2 tablespoonfuls fat
1 to 2 tablespoonfuls sugar
1 egg
1 cupful milk
Break the egg into a mixing bowl, beat it. Add the milk to it. Melt the
fat, add it to the egg mixture.
Measure the dry ingredients thoroughly. Add them (through a sifter) to the
other ingredients. Mix quickly and thoroughly, and drop into buttered
muffin pans. Bake in a hot oven (400 degrees F.) from 25 to 30 minutes.
Whole wheat flour may be substituted for fine white flour.
For graham muffins, use 1 cupful of fine white flour and 1 cupful
of graham flour.
1 1/8 cupfuls of sour milk may be used instead of 1 cupful of sweet
milk. If this substitution is made, use 1/2 teaspoonful baking soda and
decrease the baking powder to 2 teaspoonfuls.
Molasses may be substituted for sugar.
QUESTIONS
Account for the quantity of baking powder in the muffin recipes. What
determines the quantity of baking powder?
Write a recipe for muffins, using sour cream instead of milk. What
ingredients may be decreased in quantity if sour cream is used?
If all the cups in the muffin pan are not filled with batter, how should
the empty cups be protected while in the oven?
How many muffins will the recipes above make?
From U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the
percentage composition of patent wheat flour, of graham flour, and of
"entire" wheat flour. Which contains the most protein and ash? Which
probably yields the most protein to the body? Account for the discrepancy
(see Value of Coarse Flour).
Tabulate the percentage composition of baker's flour and of a high grade
of wheat flour (patent roller process). Which contains the more protein?
Which, the more carbohydrates?
What is the weight of a barrel of flour? Of an ordinary sack of flour?
What is the present price per sack of baker's and of high-grade patent
flour?
How many cupfuls in a pound of flour?
In what quantity are whole wheat flour and graham flour usually purchased
for home use? What is the price per pound of each?
LESSON CXXI
COMPARISON OF WHEAT AND OTHER GRAINS--MUFFINS
SUBSTITUTING OTHER CEREALS FOR WHEAT FLOUR.--A resourceful worker in foods
is able to follow a standard recipe and make such substitutions as her
available materials permit. Such ability is most desirable. It enables one
to work more independently, to produce more varied foods, and to utilize
all materials, allowing none to waste.
During the wheat shortage of the World War, many valuable investigations
were made regarding the substitution of other grains for wheat flour. It
was found that the substitution should be based upon the relative
weights of wheat flour and other flours or meals rather than upon
their relative measures.
By comparing the weight of 1 cupful of wheat pastry flour with the same
quantity of its substitutes, the following data have been obtained.
For 1 cupful of wheat flour substitute:
l 1/8 cupfuls barley flour
5/6 cupful buckwheat flour
1 1/6 cupfuls fine corn-meal
1 scant cupful peanut flour
7/8 cupful rice flour
1 1/2 cupfuls rolled oats
1 1/8 cupfuls rolled oats, ground
in food chopper
1/3 cupful tapioca flour
7/8 cupful soy-bean flour
3/4 cupful potato flour
1 cupful rye flour
Although yeast breads are not so satisfactory if made
entirely of a grain other than wheat, quick breads of desirable
grain and texture may be made without wheat. It has been found,
however, that a combination of two or more wheat substitutes gives more
satisfactory results than a single substitute.
When no wheat is used in quick breads, the following combinations of
substitutes are suggested by the United States Department of
Agriculture, States Relation Service.
Rolled oats (ground) or
Barley flour or
Buckwheat flour or
Peanut flour or
Soy-bean flour
and
Corn flour or
Corn-meal or
Rice flour or
Potato flour or
Sweet potato flour
Since the wheat substitutes contain little or none of the kind of protein
which when moistened forms a sticky and elastic substance, an increase in
the number of eggs in quick breads containing no wheat produces a
satisfactory texture. The albumin of eggs aids in holding the materials
together.
By scalding certain of the wheat substitutes before adding them to other
ingredients, a sticky starch paste is formed. This also aids in binding
materials together.
When using a wheat substitute instead of wheat (as suggested in
Quantity of Baking Powder in Quick Breads) it is advisable to
increase the quantity of baking powder,--1/2 teaspoonful for
each cupful of the substitute used. Thus, if a muffin recipe calls for
3 1/2 teaspoonfuls of baking powder and 2 cupfuls of corn flour are
substituted for wheat, the quantity of baking powder should be increased
to 4 1/2 teaspoonfuls.
WHY WHEAT IS POPULAR.--In this country, wheat is doubtless the most used
of all grains. Its white or creamy color and mild flavor which blends well
with that of many foods account in part for its popularity. From a
culinary standpoint, wheat flour is more satisfactory to use than any
other kind. It produces breads of pleasing texture,--tender but firm
enough to hold their shape. Yeast breads made of wheat flour are larger
than those made with other cereals.
Although wheat is generally used, its food value is not superior to that
of other grains. It is doubtless because we are "used to" wheat that we
have favored it more than other cereals.
COMPARING WHEAT WITH OTHER GRAINS.--Make a comparative study of the
composition of the following:
Wheat Flour and Corn-meal.--From U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of
wheat flour and of corn-meal. Which contains the more fat? Which contains
the more ash?
Corn-meal does not contain as much protein as does wheat. The protein in
corn-meal differs from that in wheat; it does not have the elastic
property of the protein of wheat. It is this property which makes the
latter so satisfactory in bread making. For this reason, it is always best
to combine corn-meal with wheat flour or some other cereal in preparing
corn breads.
It should be noted that corn-meal contains more fat than wheat flour, and
it compares favorably in digestibility with wheat flour. There is a
difference in flavor, but no difference in the nutritive value of yellow
and of white corn-meal.
Wheat Flour and Oatmeal.--From U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of
wheat flour and of oatmeal. Which contains the more protein, fat, and ash?
Which contains the more carbohydrates?
Oatmeal contains more protein, fat, and ash than any of the cereals
commonly used. It is a very tough cereal and requires long cooking in
order to make it palatable.
Wheat Flour and Rice.--From U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of wheat flour (all
analyses, average). Now tabulate the percentage composition of rice
(average). Which contains the more carbohydrates? Which, the more protein
and ash?
Polished rice contains the least ash and protein of all the common
cereals. It is also deficient in fat in comparison with the other cereals.
Unpolished rice, however, contains more than twice as much ash as the
polished cereal. It also contains more fat and protein. [Footnote 94:
Composition of unpolished rice: protein, 8.02;
fat, 1.96;
carbohydrates, 76.98;
ash, 1.15.] Hence it compares favorably with the composition of other
grains.
Wheat Flour, Barley, Buckwheat, and Rye.--From U. S. Department
of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition
of wheat flour, of barley, of buckwheat, and of rye. Note the quantity of
fat in barley and in buckwheat, and the small amount of protein in
buckwheat and in rye.
CORN MUFFINS
1 1/3 cupfuls flour
2/3 cupful corn-meal
4 teaspoonfuls baking powder
1 to 2 tablespoonfuls sugar
1/3 teaspoonful salt
1 egg
1 1/4 cupfuls milk
2 tablespoonfuls fat
Mix as plain muffins, and bake in oiled muffin tins 25 to 30 minutes at
400 F.
Rye meal may be substituted for corn-meal in this recipe.
RICE MUFFINS
1 1/3 cupfuls flour
3 3/4 teaspoonfuls baking powder
2 tablespoonfuls sugar
1/2 teaspoonful salt
1 egg
2/3 cupful milk
1/2 cupful cooked rice
2 tablespoonfuls fat
Beat the egg; add the milk and the cooked rice. Add the dry ingredients
(through a sifter) to the egg mixture; melt the fat; add it to the flour
mixture. Mix quickly and thoroughly, and bake in buttered muffin tins in a
hot oven (400 F.) for 25 to 30 minutes.
OATMEAL MUFFINS
Use the recipe for Plain Muffins as a basic rule. Substitute 1 cupful
rolled oats for 1 cupful of wheat flour. Scald the milk, pour it over the
rolled oats. Let the mixture stand for about 1/2 hour or until it is cool.
Then add the other ingredients and mix as plain muffins. Use 4
teaspoonfuls of baking powder instead of 3 1/2 teaspoonfuls.
QUESTIONS
Explain why corn-meal is not used alone for corn-meal muffins (see
Wheat Flour and Corn-meal).
Compare the quantity of milk used in Rice Muffins with that used in Plain
Muffins. Account for the difference.
From U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the
percentage composition of boiled rice. Compare with the composition of the
uncooked food. How much nourishment is lost by boiling?
By what method can rice be cooked to retain the most nourishment?
Explain why the per cent of nutrients in a food does not always indicate
the quantity of nourishment that the nutrients yield to the body (see
Per Cent of Nutrients; Nutritive Values).
LESSON CXXII
BAKING POWDER LOAF BREADS
QUICK LOAF BREADS.--The making of yeast bread requires kneading and covers
a considerable period of time. A loaf of bread leavened with baking powder
or other leavens suitable for quick breads may be made in a short time.
The ingredients used for such a loaf, and the method of mixing it are
about the same as for muffins. Baking the mixture in a bread pan rather
than in muffin pans saves some effort in pouring the batter in the pan and
in washing them. For those whose time is limited for food preparation, the
making of baking powder loaf breads is recommended.
If it is necessary or desirable to use meals or flours other than wheat,
baking powder loaf breads are advisable. Such
grains can be used successfully in greater quantity (i.e. with the
addition of little or no wheat flour) in quick breads than in yeast
breads.
A quick bread baked in a loaf should be placed in a moderate oven,--about
300 degrees F. Moderate heat is applied so that the loaf will rise
sufficiently before a crust is formed. After 10 or 15 minutes, the
temperature of the oven should be increased. Some secure desirable results
by allowing a loaf of quick bread to stand 20 minutes before placing it in
the oven. Such a procedure is unnecessary if the loaf is placed in an oven
of proper temperature.
WHOLE WHEAT BAKING POWDER BREAD
3 cupfuls whole wheat flour
3 tablespoonfuls sugar
2 3/4 teaspoonfuls baking powder
7/8 teaspoonful baking soda
1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt
1 egg
1 3/4 cupfuls sour milk
3 tablespoonfuls fat
Mix these ingredients in the same way as Plain Muffins. Pour into an oiled
bread pan. Bake in a moderate oven (325 degrees F.) 45 to 60 minutes.
The egg may be omitted. If this is done, increase the baking powder to 3
1/4 teaspoonfuls.
Peanut Bread may be made by adding 1 cupful chopped peanuts. If
commercial salted peanuts are used, decrease the salt to 1/2 teaspoonful.
PRUNE BAKING POWDER BREAD
1 1/2 cupfuls whole wheat flour
1 cupful pastry flour
3/8 cupful sugar
5 3/4 teaspoonfuls baking powder
1 teaspoonful salt
1 egg
1 cupful prunes (measured before soaking and cooking)
1 cupful liquid (prune water and milk)
2 tablespoonfuls fat
Wash the prunes, soak, and cook them as directed previously. Drain, stone,
and cut in pieces or chop them.
Break an egg in the mixing bowl. Beat it and add the chopped prunes. Put
the water drained from the prunes in a measuring cup and fill up the
latter with milk. Add this liquid to the egg and prune mixture. Then
proceed as in making Plain Muffins. Turn into an oiled bread pan. Bake in
a moderate oven (325 degrees F.) 45 to 60 minutes.
Raisins or dates may be used instead of prunes. These fruits
may be cooked before adding to the other ingredients or they may be used
uncooked. If the latter plan is followed, use 1 1/4 cupfuls milk instead
of 1 cupful liquid.
QUESTIONS
Write a recipe for Prune Baking Powder Bread in which no eggs are used.
Write a recipe for Raisin Baking Powder Bread in which uncooked raisins
are used, and sour milk is substituted for sweet milk.
Use the recipe for Whole Wheat Baking Powder Bread as a basis, and write a
recipe for a loaf of quick bread in which fine white flour is used.
Decrease the sour milk to 1 1/2 cupfuls. If the latter change is made,
what ingredients will also require changing in quantity?
LESSON CXXIII
EGGS FOR QUICK BREADS--CREAM PUFFS
DRIED EGGS.--Eggs are a most valuable food, but they are extremely high in
price. In the packing and transportation of eggs, many are broken. To save
these cracked eggs, methods of drying them have been devised. If dried or
desiccated eggs are cooked or used in cooked foods, they are not
injurious. Their food value is high.
It has been found [Footnote 95: See Journal of Home Economics, Vol. XI, p.
108 (March, 1919), "The Use of Desiccated Eggs," by Lois Lhamon] that
desiccated eggs can be used successfully in custards, quick breads, cakes,
and salad dressings. Use 1 slightly rounded tablespoonful of dried egg
for each egg desired. To this amount of powder, add 3
tablespoonfuls of water. Cover the mixture and allow to stand from 30
to 45 minutes, stirring occasionally. A solution is thus obtained, which
resembles eggs in which the whites and yolks have been beaten together.
Desiccated eggs should not be confused with the so-called egg-substitute
powders. The latter contain little and sometimes no dried egg. These
usually are composed of starch, coloring material, with a little
nitrogenous material in the form of gelatine, casein, or albumin. Their
food value cannot be compared with that of eggs. For the amount of
nutriment contained in egg-substitute powders, their price is high.
THE PREPARATION OF EGGS FOR DELICATE QUICK BREADS.--In all the quick
bread mixtures given thus far, the whites and yolks of eggs were beaten
together. It was shown in Experiments 41 and 43 that more air could be
inclosed in an egg mixture when the white and yolk were beaten separately.
It is well, therefore, to beat each part of an egg separately when a
delicate bread is desired.
The reason that meringues, unless cooked, fall after a time, is because
some of the inclosed air has escaped. From this it is apparent why eggs
used in quick breads should not be beaten until ready for use.
It is possible, also, by much stirring and careless mixing, to lose some
of the air inclosed in a beaten egg white. When the egg is to be
separated, the method of cutting and folding, as used in Foamy Omelet,
should be used for mixing the egg whites with the other ingredients of a
quick bread.
CREAM PUFF BATTER.--The flour of cream puff mixture is usually cooked
before baking so that a paste is formed. When the mixture containing the
flour paste is dropped on a flat surface, it does not spread to a great
extent and holds its shape. It is possible to mix Cream Puffs in the same
manner as Popovers. If this method is followed and uncooked flour is added
to the batter, it is necessary to bake the cream puff mixture in muffin
tins or gem pans.
The method of leavening Cream Puffs is similar to that used in leavening
Popovers, i.e. by means of steam and air inclosed in beaten eggs.
CREAM PUFFS
1/2 cupful water
3 tablespoonfuls vegetable oil
1 tablespoonful butter
5/8 cupful flour
1/4 teaspoonful salt
2 eggs
Mix the water and fat and heat the mixture until the water boils. Add all
of the flour and salt and mix thoroughly. Stir and cook until the
ingredients are well blended and the paste does not stick to the sides of
the pan. (Care should be taken not to cook the mixture too long. If the
fat separates from the other ingredients, the puffs will not be
successful.) While the mixture is hot, add the eggs, unbeaten, one at a
time. Beat until thoroughly mixed. Drop by tablespoonfuls on an oiled
baking-sheet, and bake at 450 degrees F., for 20 minutes, then at 325
degrees F., for 25 minutes. When cool slit one side open and fill with
Cream or Chocolate Filling or Whipped Cream.
Cream Puffs may also be filled with creamed chicken or veal, or a salad
mixture.
CREAM FILLING
1 cupful flour
3/4 cupful sugar
2 cupfuls scalded milk
1/2 tablespoonful butter
1 egg
1/4 teaspoonful salt
1 teaspoonful vanilla
Mix the flour and sugar together. Slowly add the hot milk. Pour the
mixture into a double boiler and cook for 20 minutes. Remove from heat.
Beat the egg, add the egg and butter to the flour and milk mixture. Return
to the fire and cook over water until the egg is coagulated; then add the
salt. Cool, and add flavoring.
For economy the butter may be omitted.
Chocolate Filling may be made by following the recipe for Cream
Filling, increasing the sugar to 1 cupful and adding a paste made by
cooking 1 square (or ounce) of chocolate with 1/4 cupful of water as
directed in Chocolate Corn-starch Pudding.
QUESTIONS
Note the quantity of flour and water used in cream puff mixture. What kind
of batter do these quantities of flour and moisture usually make? How do
you account for the consistency of the cream puff batter when it is ready
to bake?
From the difference in the methods of preparing Cream Puffs and Popovers
before baking, explain the difference in the stiffness of the mixtures.
By what gas is the mixture lightened? By what means is this gas introduced
into the mixture?
Why is it necessary to bake the mixture for so long a time?
What is the result of baking this mixture for too short a time?
In Cream Filling, what is the purpose of mixing the flour and sugar before
cooking (see Experiment 24)?
Give two reasons for cooking this mixture in the double boiler, rather
than directly over the flame.
How long a time does it take to thicken the flour mixture? Why is it
necessary to cook it for 20 minutes?
What is the use of eggs in the filling? Why are they not cooked as long as
the flour mixture?
Determine the number of Cream Puffs this recipe will make.
From U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the
percentage composition of the edible portions of whole eggs (see Figure
75), of egg yolk, and of egg white. Compare the last two. Which contains
the more fat? Which contains the more protein? Which contains the more
water? Which contains the more nutriment?
Tabulate the percentage composition of milk (see Figure 64).
RELATED WORK
LESSON CXXIV
FOOD REQUIREMENT
DAILY ENERGY REQUIREMENT.--One hears much concerning working efficiency,
i.e. the ability to do the maximum amount of work of the highest
type with a minimum waste of effort. There is no doubt that the kind and
quantity of food that an individual consumes has much to do with his
working efficiency, and that it is consequently a matter worthy of serious
consideration. Enough gasoline is used in an automobile so that there is
produced sufficient power to move the car at the desired speed. So
sufficient food should be used by the individual that enough energy be
supplied to his body for its greatest usefulness.
Since foods furnish the body with energy, the energy which the body
spends in doing its work is a measure of the fuel food needed. If the
body requires a certain amount of energy for its needs, this energy,
measured in Calories, can be supplied by a definite quantity of
combustible food. Hence, daily energy requirements can be measured in
Calories.
Scientists have done much experimenting and investigating concerning the
quantity of food that individuals require. They have concluded that many
factors may be taken into consideration in determining daily food
requirements or dietary standards. Some of these factors are: (1)
weight; (2) occupation; (3) age.
(1) Relation of Weight, Size, and Shape to Daily Energy
Requirement.--In general the quantity of food required increases with
the size of an individual but not at the same rate as the body weight
increases. Two persons may be equal in weight, yet very different in
height and shape. A tall, slender person requires more food than a short,
fleshy person of the same weight. For this reason, size and shape rather
than weight are found more accurate in computing the daily food
requirement. However, for practical purposes, energy requirement is
generally based upon body weight.
(2) Relation of Occupation to Daily Energy Requirement.--From the
previous consideration of energy, it is obvious that muscular exercise,
even though very slight, requires some expenditure of energy. It has been
found that, even during sleep and rest, energy is required to carry on the
functions of the body (such as the beating of the heart, etc.). Since the
energy for both the voluntary and involuntary activities of the body is
furnished by the fuel foods, it is clear that one's occupation is an
important factor in determining the kind and quantity of food an
individual should use.
The man who is doing hard physical work needs more food than the man who
sits quietly at his employment.
The following table, showing the energy required for different conditions
of activity, has been formulated by scientists: [Footnote 96: Atwater and
Benedict, United States Department of Agriculture, Yearbook 1904, p. 215.]
Man sleeping requires 65 Calories per hour
Man sitting at rest requires 100 Calories per hour
Man at light muscular exercise requires 170 Calories per hour
Man at active muscular exercise requires 290 Calories per hour
Man at severe muscular exercise requires 450 Calories per hour
Man at very severe muscular exercise requires 600 Calories per hour
From these data, it is possible to compute the dietaries of people of
different occupations. For example, the energy requirement for a
bookkeeper (male) leading an inactive muscular life is:
8 hours sleep (65 Calories per hour) 520 Calories
9 hours work at desk (100 Calories per hour) 900 Calories
4 hours sitting at rest and reading (100 Calories per
hour) 400 Calories
3 hours walking (170 Calories per hour) 510 Calories
-------------
2330 Calories
The energy requirement for a man of severe muscular activity, such as
excavating, is:
8 hours sleep (65 Calories per hour) 520 Calories
8 hours excavating (450 Calories per hour) 3600 Calories
1 hour walking (170 Calories per hour) 170 Calories
7 hours sitting at rest (100 Calories per hour) 700 Calories
-------------
4990 Calories
Another authority [Footnote 97: "Textbook of Physiology," p. 141,
Tigerstedt.] gives these data pertaining to men engaged in muscular work:
Shoemaker requires 2001-2400 Calories per day
Weaver requires 2401-2700 Calories per day
Carpenter or mason requires 2701-3200 Calories per day
Farm laborer requires 3201-4100 Calories per day
Excavator requires 4101-5000 Calories per day
Lumberman requires 5000 or more Calories per day
The following data regarding the energy requirements of the average woman
in some of her common occupations have been formulated [Footnote 98: See
"Feeding the Family," p. 76, by Mary Swartz Rose, Ph.D.]:
At rest 1600-1800 Calories per day
Sedentary occupations 2000-2200 Calories per day
Milliners Teachers
Bookkeepers Seamstresses
Stenographers Machine operatives
Occupations involving standing, walking,
or manual labor 2200-2500 Calories per day
Cooks in family groups Chamber maids
General housekeepers Waitresses
Occupations developing muscular
strength 2500-3000 Calories per day
Laundresses Cooks for large groups
(3) Relation of Age to Daily Energy Requirement.--Young children,
i.e. those under eight or nine years of age, do not require as much
food as adults. The food requirement of a child and of an adult is not
proportional to weight, however. In proportion to his weight a child
requires more food than an adult. The growing child needs food, not only
to give energy to the body and rebuild tissue, but to build new tissue. An
aged person needs less food to build new tissue. Furthermore, since an old
person's strength is somewhat lessened, he needs less food to carry on the
activities of the body. Hence, the aged person requires less food than the
adult of middle life. The following table [Footnote 99: From "Chemistry of
Food and Nutrition," Second Edition, by Henry C. Sherman, Ph.D., p. 197.]
gives the differences in energy requirement of children from one to
seventeen years inclusive. It is thought that after the age of seventeen,
food requirement will depend quite as much upon occupation as upon age.
Hence, the foregoing tables can be used to estimate energy requirement for
all ages above seventeen:
Children of 1-2 years inclusive 1000-1200 Calories per day
Children of 2-5 years inclusive 1200-1500 Calories per day
Children of 6-9 years inclusive 1400-2000 Calories per day
Girls of 10-13 years inclusive 1800-2400 Calories per day
Boys of 10-13 years inclusive 2300-3000 Calories per day
Girls of 14-17 years inclusive 2200-2600 Calories per day
Boys of 14-17 years inclusive 2800-4000 Calories per day
The fact that the energy requirement of the boy from 10 to 17 years is
greater than that of the girl of equal age is due probably to the greater
restlessness or muscular activity of the boy.
DAILY PROTEIN REQUIREMENT.--If a person's energy requirement were 2500
Calories, sufficient energy might be supplied by using butter or beef
steak for a day's ration. Yet this would be extremely unpalatable and
would not meet the needs of the body. The body should be nourished by all
the combustible foodstuffs,--carbohydrates, fat, and protein. Now the
question arises: How many of the required Calories shall be supplied by
each of these foodstuffs?
Too much or too little protein is often harmful and produces serious
results. As mentioned previously, too much protein may cause intestinal
disturbances, and an overtaxing of the excretory organs. On the other
hand, the use of too little protein may produce imperfect nourishment.
Concerning the quantity of protein used in diet, there has been much
difference of opinion. Atwater, an American authority, thought that there
should be a generous supply, i.e. a surplus of protein, to supply the
demands of body-building. Chittenden, another American authority, believes
in just enough protein to meet the demands of the body. However, the use
of sufficient protein food to produce from ten to fifteen per cent of the
total Calories has been found both practical and satisfactory.
Daily Carbohydrate and Fat Requirement.--Although protein may furnish the
body with energy, it should not serve as the principal source of fuel. Its
more essential function is to help build the body. If carbohydrates and
fat are present with protein, the former supply energy and allow the
protein to perform its more important function of body-building. There
should always be enough carbohydrates and fat to furnish energy to the
body, so that the protein can be used chiefly for body-building. In the
growing period of youth or after a wasting disease, it might seem that
"flesh" could be "put on" by increasing the quantity of bodybuilding food.
But such is not the case. The most effective work in building the body can
be accomplished by using a normal amount of food rich in protein and a
generous supply of foods rich in ash, carbohydrates, fat, and vitamines.
With such a combination, the protein can be used to best advantage for
body-building.
For practical purposes, the following general statement concerning the
carbohydrates and fat requirement is believed to be adequate: If the total
Calories and the number of Calories yielded by protein meet the
requirement of a dietary standard and the food composing the diet is
varied in composition, the carbohydrates and fat will exist in
satisfactory proportion.
DAILY ASH REQUIREMENT.--Since ash is not a combustible foodstuff, it
cannot be included in the foodstuffs whose energy requirement can be
measured. Although ash exists in small quantity in food, the use of
certain ash constituents is considered as necessary as the use of protein.
A diet may meet the total energy, the protein, the carbohydrate, and the
fat requirements, yet may be lacking in certain essential mineral
materials. It is especially necessary to include food containing
phosphorus, iron, and calcium in one's diet.
THE APPETITE AND FOOD REQUIREMENT.--The appetite is the most common
measure of daily food requirement. If one relies upon his appetite as an
index of the quantity of food he should consume, and if his health and
weight remain normal, the appetite may serve as a guide for daily food
requirement. But one may be a little over weight or under weight, and yet
have normal body functions.
There can be no doubt, however, that the whims of the appetite often lead
to unwise selection of food. A study of food composition is absolutely
essential in overcoming this fault. Lack of energy or loss of flesh may be
due to improper feeding. If the needs of the body and the kind and
quantity of food that will supply these needs are understood by the home-
keeper, she may do much in maintaining the health, happiness, and
usefulness of the members of the family.
WEIGHT AS AN INDEX TO PROPER NOURISHMENT.--It has been found that the diet
of an individual has a most decided effect upon his weight. Dr. Thomas D.
Wood has prepared tables showing the normal height and weight of girls and
boys of various ages. These tables are most valuable in determining
whether or not a girl or boy is of the proper weight for his height. If
the weight of a girl or boy is less than it should be, he is likely to be
malnourished.
HEIGHT AND WEIGHT TABLE FOR GIRLS
HEIGHT 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
INCHES YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS
39 34 35 36
40 36 37 38
41 38 39 40
42 40 41 42 43
43 42 42 43 44
44 44 45 45 46
45 46 47 47 48 49
46 48 48 49 50 51
47 49 50 51 52 53
48 51 52 53 54 55 56
49 53 54 55 56 57 58
50 56 57 58 59 60 61
51 59 60 61 62 63 64
52 62 63 64 65 66 67
53 66 67 68 68 69 70
54 68 69 70 71 72 73
55 72 73 74 75 76 77
56 76 77 78 79 80 81
57 81 82 83 84 85 86
58 85 86 87 88 89 90 91
59 89 90 91 93 94 95 96 98
60 94 95 97 99 100 102 104 106
61 99 101 102 104 106 108 109 111
62 104 106 107 109 111 113 114 115
63 109 111 112 113 115 117 118 119
64 115 117 118 119 120 121 122
65 117 119 120 122 123 124 125
66 119 121 122 124 126 127 128
67 124 126 127 128 129 130
68 126 128 130 132 133 134
69 129 131 133 135 136 137
70 134 136 138 139 140
71 138 140 142 143 144
72 145 147 148 149
ABOUT WHAT A GIRL SHOULD GAIN EACH MONTH
Age Age
5 to 8 6 oz. 14 to 16 8 oz
8 to 11 8 oz. 16 to 18 4 oz
11 to 14 12 oz.
Weights and measures should be taken without shoes and in only the
usual indoor clothes
CHILD HEALTH ORGANIZATION
156 Fifth Avenue, New York
Courtesy of Child Health Organization. Prepared by Dr. Thomas D. Wood.
HEIGHT AND WEIGHT TABLE FOR BOYS
HEIGHT 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
INCHES Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs
39 35 36 37
40 37 38 39
41 39 40 41
42 41 42 43 44
43 43 44 45 46
44 45 46 46 47
45 47 47 48 48 49
46 48 49 50 50 51
47 51 52 52 53 54
48 53 54 55 55 56 57
49 55 56 57 58 58 59
50 58 59 60 60 61 62
51 60 61 62 63 64 65
52 62 63 64 65 67 68
53 66 67 68 69 70 71
54 69 70 71 72 73 74
55 73 74 75 76 77 78
56 77 78 79 80 81 82
57 81 82 83 84 85 86
58 84 85 86 87 88 90 91
59 87 88 89 90 92 94 96 97
60 91 92 93 94 97 99 101 102
61 95 97 99 102 104 106 108 110
62 100 102 104 106 109 111 113 116
63 103 107 109 111 114 115 117 119
64 113 115 117 118 119 120 122
65 120 122 123 124 125 126
66 125 126 127 128 129 130
67 130 131 132 133 134 135
68 134 135 136 137 138 139
69 138 139 140 141 142 143
70 142 144 145 146 147
71 147 149 150 151 153
72 152 154 155 156 157
73 157 159 160 161 162
74 162 164 165 166 167
75 169 170 171 172
76 174 175 176 177
ABOUT WHAT A BOY SHOULD GAIN EACH MONTH
AGE AGE
5 to 8 6 oz 12 to 16 16 oz
8 to 12 8 oz 16 to 18 8 oz
Courtesy of Child Health Organization Prepared by Dr Thomas D Wood
Dr. Wood's tables also indicate the proper rate of increase in weight. The
rate of increase in weight is thought to be quite as important as is the
correct proportion between weight and height. The use of scales in the
home and school is to be recommended. They furnish a means of determining
whether the proper amount is being eaten.
QUESTIONS
Compute the energy requirement of at least two members of your family.
Compute your own energy requirement from this table.
Determine your height and weight. How does your weight compare with the
normal weight given in the table for one of your height? If you are under
weight, discuss with your teacher the kind and quantity of food needed to
increase your weight. At the end of a month, again determine your weight.
How does the gain compare with that given in the table for one of your
age?
LESSON CXXV
PLANNING, COOKING, AND SERVING A DINNER
Plan a dinner. [Footnote 100: See footnote 72.] Use seasonable foods and a
meat-substitute. Follow the suggestions given in Lesson CV.
Plan the menu so that the cost of the materials used does not exceed 25
cents per person. Analyze the menu and see that it meets the requirements
stated in Lesson CV.
Cook and serve the dinner. Follow the Russian or Compromise style of
serving. Serve the dinner with a maid, provided the pupils find it useful
to know how to serve with a maid either in their own homes or in the homes
of others. [Footnote 101: See Suggestions for Teaching, Appendix),
regarding service with and without a maid.]
LESSON CXXVI
REVIEW--MEAL COOKING
MENU
Potato Soup
Lettuce Salad with French Dressing
Muffins
See Lesson XIV regarding suggestions for the preparation of the lesson.
LESSON CXXVII
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 102: See Lesson IX.]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Prepare muffins, baking powder biscuits, or
baking powder loaf breads at least twice a week.
SUGGESTED AIMS: (1) To learn to work quickly. Note the time required to
mix these quick breads. Strive to lessen the number of minutes each time
you prepare them.
(2) To use available materials. Use the food-materials you have on hand,--
such as sour or sweet milk, left-over cooked cereals, and different kinds
of flours or meals.
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