School and Home Cooking by Carlotta C. Greer Published: 1920
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DIVISION TEN
QUICK BREADS: POUR BATTERS
LESSON CIX
LEAVENING WITH STEAM AND AIR. POPOVERS
When flour is to be moistened and baked to make bread or cake, other
ingredients are usually added to improve the grain, texture, and flavor.
To understand some of the principles of mixing and lightening baked flour
mixtures, try the following:
EXPERIMENT 64: LEAVENING WITH STEAM AND AIR.[Footnote 74: NOTE TO THE
TEACHER.--Experiments 64 and 65 can be performed most expeditiously by
dividing the class into groups of two and having each group do the two
experiments.]--Mix 1/8 cupful of flour and 1/8 cupful of cold water. Beat
thoroughly with a Dover egg beater. Note the consistency of the batter.
Pour at once into an oiled muffin pan. Bake in a hot oven for at least 20
minutes. Remove from the pan, break it open, and answer the following
questions:
What happened during baking to the cold air inclosed in the mixture? With
what material did the flour combine during baking? Into what form was a
part of the water changed during baking? Explain fully how the mixture was
made porous.
EXPERIMENT 65: COMPARISON OF THICK AND THIN QUICK BREADS--Repeat
Experiment 64, using 1/2 tablespoonful of cold water instead of 1/8
cupful. After baking, examine and compare with the bread of Experiment 64.
Which is the more porous? Explain how the difference in quantity of
moisture accounts for the difference in grain. If a mixture is to be
leavened with steam and air, what should be the consistency of the
mixture?
Some simple flour mixtures are lightened by the method indicated above. In
most cases, however, more air is introduced into the mixture by using
lightly beaten eggs, or by using ingredients that produce gas, on being
moistened and heated.
EXPERIMENT 66: PREPARATION OF FLOUR FOR QUICK BREADS.--Measure 1/4 cupful
of pastry flour just as it comes from the can. Sift it, and return it
carefully to the measuring cup, using a teaspoon. How much does the flour
measure now? What does this experiment teach with regard to sifting flour
before measuring? Of what advantage is it to sift flour not only before
measuring, but when adding it to the other ingredients of a quick bread?
[NOTE.--Use this sifted flour for making Popovers.]
In preparing all quick bread mixtures, pastry flour (see Wheat
Flour) should be used. It should be sifted before measuring. Usually
any other powdered ingredient, such as baking powder, soda, or spices, is
added to the flour and mixed thoroughly (by sifting) into the other
materials. Baking powder and soda need not be sifted before measuring, but
should be stirred.
OVEN THERMOMETERS AND TEMPERATURES.--The ovens of a number of ranges are
equipped with thermometers. Although it is possible to secure more
satisfactory results with a thermometer than without, oven thermometers do
not always indicate the temperature of an oven accurately. If a
thermometer is fastened on an oven door, for example, and the door does
not heat as quickly or to as high a degree as the interior of the oven,
the true temperature of the oven cannot be ascertained by this device. By
making allowance for the difference, however, such a thermometer may prove
very useful. It is much more accurately and conveniently read than a
thermometer which is hung or rests inside the oven unless the oven is
provided with a glass door.
[Illustration: Courtesy of the National Stove Co FIGURE 81--OVEN
HEAT REGULATOR]
A device known as an "Oven Heat Regulator" (see Figure 81) may be attached
to gas ranges. These devices do not merely measure the heat of an oven,
but control it and keep the oven temperature constant. A "temperature
wheel" (shown at B) is set for a desired temperature and the oven burner
lighted. By the expansion or contraction of a sensitive copper tube placed
in the top of the oven (shown at A) the gas valve (shown at C) is opened
or closed. When the valve is opened the amount of gas burning is increased
or decreased so that the temperature of the oven is kept constant,
i.e. at the temperature at which the wheel is set. Insulated ovens,
i.e. ovens which are constructed so as to retain heat and allow
little to escape, are found on some of the modern gas, electric, and
kerosene stoves. Some of the insulated electric ovens are provided with
clocks or dials which may be adjusted so that the current is cut off
automatically at the expiration of a certain length of time, or when a
certain temperature is reached (see Figure 14). Because of the insulated
walls on such ovens, the food continues to cook on "stored heat."
A chemical thermometer inserted in an oven is a fairly satisfactory means
of obtaining oven temperatures. If one has the use of an oven provided
with a chemical thermometer in the school kitchen, tests may be obtained
so that the temperature of the oven in the home kitchen may be estimated.
The tests are as follows: Heat the oven; when it reaches a temperature of
250 degrees F., [Footnote 75: See footnote 86, regarding the use of the
Fahrenheit scale.] place a piece of white paper in the oven. After 5
minutes, remove the paper, note the color. Continue to heat the oven;
place paper in the oven at 350 degrees F., 400 degrees F., 425 degrees F.,
450 degrees F., 475 degrees F., 500 degrees F., 525 degrees F., and 550
degrees F. Note the color of each piece of paper.
Baking temperatures have been classified as follows: [Footnote 76: From
Technical Education Bulletin, No. 22, "Some Attempts to Standardize Oven
Temperatures for Cookery Processes," by May B. Van Arsdale, Teachers
College, Columbia University.]
1. Slow oven (250 degrees to 350 degrees F.) for custards and meringues.
2. Moderate oven (350 degrees to 400 degrees F.) for bread, gingerbread,
plain cake, [Footnote 77: The lower temperature should be used for loaf
cakes and the higher temperature for layer cakes.] all molasses mixtures.
3. Hot oven (400 degrees to 450 degrees F.) for Parkerhouse rolls, and
Popovers. In baking Popovers, the oven should be cooled to moderate heat
after the first ten minutes.
4. Very hot oven (450 degrees to 550 degrees F.) for pastry. After the
first 6 minutes, the temperature should be lowered to "hot."
Oven temperatures may be estimated also as follows: (a) note the
number of minutes required to change white paper, flour, or bread to a
light brown or to a golden brown; (b) note the number of "counts"
(one count per second) that the hand may be held in the oven.
POUR BATTER.--All breads may be divided into two classes: (a) Quick
Breads and (b) Yeast Breads. The former are so named because a much
shorter time is required in their preparation. Quick breads are divided
into several classes, depending upon the proportion of flour and moisture
in the batter. A pour batter is the thinnest quick bread mixture.
It usually contains about equal parts of flour and moisture. A definite
proportion cannot be stated, since the thickening quality of different
flours varies, and the wetting quality of different moist materials
varies. Many pour batters contain a little more flour than moisture.
Popover mixture is. a typical pour batter.
POPOVERS
1 egg
1/2 teaspoonful salt
1 cupful milk
1 cupful flour
1/3 teaspoonful fat (melted)
Oil iron gem pans; place them in the oven, heat until very hot. Put all
the Popover ingredients in a mixing bowl, and beat the mixture with a
Dover egg beater. Pour it into the hot pans and bake 35 to 45 minutes in a
hot oven, at 425 degrees F. Earthen cups placed in a dripping pan may be
used instead of iron pans.
Popovers may be served hot as a bread, for breakfast or luncheon; or may
be used as a dessert with custard or lemon filling or sauce. Fruit makes a
pleasing addition to Popovers. Before baking, drop a piece of apple,
peach, or other fruit, into the batter in each cup.
QUESTIONS
What change, other than moistening the flour, takes place in the milk that
helps to lighten the Popovers?
What changes take place in the eggs and in the air inclosed in them when
they are heated quickly?
What is the purpose of beating the Popover mixture thoroughly? How many
Popovers will the given recipe make?
LESSON CX
LEAVENING WITH BAKING SODA AND SOUR MILK: SPIDER CORN BREAD
Besides the air that is beaten into the eggs and into the combined
ingredients of quick bread mixtures, a gas--carbon dioxide--is often
introduced into such mixtures. To find how this gas may be formed, try the
following:
EXPERIMENT 67: ACTION OF BAKING SODA ON SOUR MILK.--Place a teaspoonful of
sour milk in a test tube and add a pinch of baking soda. Do you notice any
change in the ingredients? Apply heat to the contents of the tube. What
kind of material (solid, liquid, or gas) is indicated by the bubbling (see
Experiment 7)? What does this experiment teach with regard to the use of
baking soda and sour milk, for lightening a mixture?
EXPERIMENT 68: CHEMICAL CHANGE.--Measure 1/4 cupful of thick sour milk.
[Footnote 78: The amount of acid in sour milk varies slightly.] Dip the
end of a piece of blue litmus paper in it. What change in color takes
place in the paper? When blue litmus changes to pink, an acid is
present. The sour milk therefore contains acid. Measure 1/8 teaspoonful of
baking soda. Mix this with a little water. Test with pink litmus paper.
When pink litmus paper changes to blue, an alkaline substance is
present. Baking soda is therefore alkaline in reaction.
Pour the milk into a saucepan, add about 3/4 of the soda mixture, stir and
heat until effervescence (bubbling) has ceased. Test the mixture in the
saucepan with blue litmus paper. If the blue litmus paper changes color,
carefully add a little more of the soda solution. Test with litmus again.
If there is still a change in color, add soda solution until the litmus
does not change. Then test with pink litmus. When neither pink nor blue
litmus paper changes color a neutral substance is present, i.e. a
substance neither acid nor alkaline.
When this occurs, the mixture in the pan is no longer acid in reaction.
Neither sour milk nor baking soda exists in the pan. A chemical
change has taken place. From the union of sour milk and soda, entirely
different materials are formed; one is the neutral substance in the pan;
another is the carbon dioxide gas which has escaped, and the third is
water. When an acid and an alkaline material are mixed, a chemical change
always occurs. Chemical changes are constantly taking place when certain
food mixtures are cooked and digested.
EXPERIMENT 69: QUANTITY OF BAKING SODA TO USE WITH SOUR MILK.--To the
contents of the saucepan of Experiment 68, add 1/8 teaspoonful more of
baking soda. Stir, heat, and test with pink litmus. What is the reaction--
acid or alkaline? Has the last quantity of soda been neutralized as was
the first quantity? Explain.
If more baking soda than is necessary to neutralize the acid of the sour
milk is used, some unneutralized soda will remain in the mixture.
This is undesirable, since soda has a "bitter taste." An excessive
quantity of unneutralized soda also discolors the mixture.
Experiments 68 and 69 indicate that the approximate proportion of
baking soda to sour milk is: 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda to 1
cupful of thick sour milk.
The following "equations" indicate the importance of using the proper
amount of baking soda to neutralize the acid materials:
1 cupful of sour milk + 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda --> [Footnote
79: The plus sign is read "with"; the arrow is read "yields."] water
+ carbon dioxide gas + neutral material.
1 cupful of sour milk + 1 teaspoonful of baking soda --> water + carbon
dioxide gas + neutral material + unneutralized "soda."
SPIDER CORN BREAD
3/4 cupful corn-meal
1/2 teaspoonful baking soda
1/4 cupful flour
1 egg
1 tablespoonful sugar
1 cupful sour milk
1/2 teaspoonful salt
1 tablespoonful butter or substitute
Mix the dry ingredients. In a mixing bowl, beat an egg, add the sour milk,
then the dry ingredients. Beat the mixtures until the ingredients are well
blended.
Melt the butter or substitute in a hot "spider" or frying pan. Pour the
corn-meal mixture into it. Bake in a hot oven until sufficiently baked,
usually about 20 minutes (see tests below). Serve hot.
TESTS FOR SUFFICIENT BAKING OF QUICK BREAD.--Quick Bread is usually
sufficiently baked: (a) when it is a golden brown in color;
(b) when the mixture shrinks from the pan; (c) when the
crust springs back into place, if pressed gently with the fingers; or
(d) when no batter or dough clings to a wire skewer or knitting
needle (see Figure 1) that has been inserted. Usually it is not necessary
to apply this last test, unless the quick bread is baked in a loaf or in a
very thick layer.
QUESTIONS
Mention the materials used in Spider Corn Bread to make it light. Explain
their action.
Explain why satisfactory results could not be obtained by using 1 1/2
teaspoonfuls of baking soda in this Spider Corn Bread recipe.
What is the price per half-pound of baking soda?
How many persons does this Spider Corn Bread recipe serve?
LESSON CXI
LEAVENING WITH BAKING SODA, SOUR MILK, AND MOLASSES: GINGERBREAD
EXPERIMENT 70: ACTION OF BAKING SODA ON MOLASSES.--Place a teaspoonful of
baking molasses in a test tube and dilute with a little water. Test it
with litmus paper. What is its reaction? Add a pinch of baking soda. Heat.
What does effervescence indicate? What do we call the gas formed by the
action of the baking soda and a substance having an acid reaction? Explain
how baking soda and molasses could be used to lighten a quick bread.
EXPERIMENT 71: QUANTITY OF BAKING SODA TO USE WITH MOLASSES.--Carefully
measure 1/8 cupful of molasses. [Footnote 80: The acidity of molasses may
be due to fermentation or to the preservatives used in many brands. Its
intensity varies.] Dilute it with much water. Carefully measure 1/16
teaspoonful of baking soda and mix it with water. Add about 3/4 of the
soda mixture to the molasses solution. Stir and heat. Test with blue
litmus. If it changes color, keep adding the soda mixture, until the
litmus paper does not change, as in Experiment 68. When neither blue nor
pink litmus paper changes color, what kind of substance,--acid, alkaline,
or neutral,--is present? What change has taken place in the materials
placed in the saucepan?
This experiment shows that the approximate proportion of baking
soda to molasses is:
1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda to 1 cupful of molasses.
This "equation" expresses the chemical change in the experiment:
1 cupful molasses + 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda --> neutral material +
carbon dioxide gas + water.
GINGERBREAD
2 cupfuls flour
1/2 teaspoonful salt
3/4 teaspoonful baking soda
1 teaspoonful cinnamon
2 teaspoonfuls ginger
1/8 teaspoonful cloves
1 egg
1 cupful thick sour milk
1/2 cupful molasses
1/2 cupful sugar
2 to 4 tablespoonfuls fat
Mix all the dry ingredients except the sugar. Beat the egg in a mixing
bowl. Add the sour milk, molasses, and sugar. If solid fat is used, melt
it. Add the fat to the molasses mixture. Through a sifter, add the dry
ingredients to other materials. Beat thoroughly and turn at once into a
shallow oiled pan. Bake in a moderate oven (375 degrees F. to 400 degrees
F.) 20 minutes or longer (see Tests for Sufficient Baking of Quick
Bread)
Gingerbread without Eggs may be made. Omit the egg from the recipe
above. To the dry ingredients, add 1 teaspoonful of baking powder.
Water Gingerbread may be made by substituting 7/8 cupful cold water
for the sour milk, and using 1/4 teaspoonful baking soda (instead of 3/4
teaspoonful) and adding 3 teaspoonfuls of baking powder.
QUESTIONS
Mention the leavening materials used in this Gingerbread, and explain
their action.
What is the price per quart of molasses?
How many persons does this recipe serve?
LESSON CXII
LEAVENING WITH BAKING POWDER: GRIDDLE CAKES
EXPERIMENT 72: EFFECT OF COLD WATER ON A MIXTURE OF CREAM OF TARTAR AND
BAKING SODA.--Test a bit of cream of tartar with moistened litmus paper.
Is it acid or alkaline in reaction?
Put 1/8 teaspoonful of baking soda and twice the quantity of cream of
tartar in a dry test tube. Does any change take place? Add about 1
teaspoonful of cold water to the mixture and examine. What change takes
place? What substance is being formed?
EXPERIMENT 73: EFFECT OF HOT WATER ON A MIXTURE OF CREAM OF TARTAR AND
BAKING SODA.--Repeat Experiment 72, using hot water instead of cold with
the baking soda and cream of tartar. Which causes greater effervescence,--
hot or cold water? Is it desirable to have more of the gas formed before
or after the mixture is placed in the oven? What, then, should be the
temperature (hot or cold) of liquids and other materials used in the quick
bread mixtures?
EXPERIMENT 74: EFFECT OF HOT WATER ON BAKING POWDER.--Add about 1
teaspoonful of hot water to 1/4 teaspoonful of baking powder. Compare the
effervescence with that of Experiment 73. From the comparison of
Experiments 72 and 73, with Experiment 74, what two kinds of substances do
you infer this baking powder contains?
(Save the contents of the tube for the following experiment.)
EXPERIMENT 75: STARCH IN BAKING POWDER.--Filter the contents of the tube
used in Experiment 74 through filter paper (see Figure 30). Add a drop of
tincture of iodine to the insoluble material left on the filter paper.
What is the insoluble constituent of this baking powder?
COMPOSITION OF BAKING POWDER.--Baking powder consists of
(a) baking soda,
(b) a substance having an acid reaction,
(c) a starchy material.
The substance of acid reaction varies in different baking powders. Some
powders in common use contain either cream of tartar, calcium or sodium
acid phosphate, or alum [Footnote 81: Alums differ in composition. They
are sulphates of various metals. The alum most commonly used in alum
baking powder is sodium aluminium sulphate.] as the "acid" material.
Certain baking powders contain a mixture of materials with acid reaction,
such as cream of tartar with tartaric acid, and alum with calcium acid
phosphate.
The starch is added to keep the other materials apart, and thus prevent
the possible formation and consequent loss of carbon dioxide.
The trade name of a baking powder does not usually suggest its
composition. But the latter is always stated on the label of the can.
EXPERIMENT 76: COMPARISON OF THE TIME OF ACTION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF
BAKING POWDERS.--Put 1/2 cupful of water of the same temperature into each
of 3 tumblers or glass measuring cups. To one tumbler add 1/2 teaspoonful
of tartrate baking powder; to the second, the same quantity of phosphate
baking powder; and to the third an equal quantity of alum (or alum and
phosphate) baking powder. Stir each and note the length of time that
chemical change occurs in each tumbler. Which type of baking powder reacts
the longest time?
DIFFERENCE IN TYPES OF BAKING POWDERS.--Although there has been much
discussion regarding the superiority of one type of baking powder over
another, it is thought that one standard baking powder is as little
harmful as another. But, as shown by Experiment 76, the action of certain
types is slower than that of others, i.e. the formation of the gas
continues for a longer time. Certain types of baking powders which react
very quickly when moisture is added may react to some extent while still
in the can and thus lose some of their effectiveness in leavening. It is
well to buy those baking powders in such quantities so that a fresh can
can be purchased often. The price of certain types of baking powders is
much greater than that of others.
QUANTITY OF BAKING POWDER IN QUICK BREADS.--Since baking powder contains
both acid and alkaline materials, the quantity of baking powder used in a
quick bread is dependent not upon another leavening material, but upon the
quantity of flour and eggs. When no eggs are used, 2 tea-spoonfuls of
baking powder should be used with 1 cupful of flour. When eggs are
added to a quick bread, the quantity of baking powder should be lessened
1/2 teaspoonful for each egg.
Two and one half teaspoonfuls of baking powder should be used with 1
cupful of coarse wheat flour or flour or meal other than wheat.
SUGGESTIONS FOR PREPARING GRIDDLE CAKES.--The general rules for mixing
quick breads apply also to griddle cakes. When the yolk and white of the
egg are separated, the mixture will be somewhat lighter. Most
housekeepers, however, beat the eggs together quickly, and find the result
satisfactory.
The consistency of griddle cake batter is most important. As suggested in
the recipe, the moisture should be added cautiously. Since the quantity of
baking powder depends upon the amount of flour, it is better to change
from a thick to a thinner batter by increasing the moisture, rather than
to change from a thin to a thicker batter by increasing the flour. After
mixing the batter, drop a small cake on the hot iron. The thickness as
well as the grain of the browned cake depends largely upon the consistency
of the batter. If too much moisture has been used, the cake is thin,
"pasty," and coarse grained.
A griddle should be heated slowly, and should be hot when the cakes are
mixed. If sufficient fat is used in the batter, it is not necessary to
oil the griddle. The recipes for griddle cakes given in this book contain
one and one half times the quantity of fat generally used in griddle cake
batters. Hence oiling the griddle is unnecessary. It is well after each
baking to wipe off the griddle with a cloth or paper.
Drop the batter by the spoonful (from the end of the spoon) on the hot
griddle, brown on the under side thoroughly. When the cakes have risen,
when the tops are full of bubbles, and when the edges are brown, the cakes
should be turned and browned on the other side. Serve cakes at once after
baking.
PLAIN GRIDDLE CAKES
2 cupfuls flour
1 egg
1/2 teaspoonful salt
1 1/2 cupfuls milk
3 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder
3 tablespoonfuls fat
Prepare according to the directions above. Add the milk cautiously. More
or less (according to the absorbing property of the flour) than the given
quantity may be required.
1/8 cupful of sugar or molasses may be added to the mixture. If desired,
one more egg may be used in this recipe. Serve with maple or other sirup
(see Sirup).
BREAD GRIDDLE CAKES
1 1/2 cupfuls bread crumbs
1 1/2 cupfuls hot milk
3 tablespoonfuls fat
1 to 2 eggs
1/2 cupful flour
1/2 teaspoonful salt
3 teaspoonfuls baking powder
Soak the bread in the hot milk until soft. Add the other ingredients in
the order given.
1 cupful of cooked cereal may be used instead of bread crumbs. Rice
Griddle Cakes are especially pleasing.
QUESTIONS
Account for the quantity of baking powder used in each of these recipes.
What is the price per pound of cream of tartar? Of tartrate baking powder?
Of phosphate baking powder? Of alum baking powder? Of alum-phosphate
baking powder?
What would be the effect of exposing baking powder to moist air? How
should baking powder be stored?
What kind of griddle cakes result when the batter is too thin? When too
thick?
What indicates that the griddle is too hot? Too cool?
How should griddle cakes be served?
LESSON CXIII
LEAVENING WITH BAKING SODA, SOUR MILK, AND BAKING POWDER: SOUR MILK
GRIDDLE CAKES
ADDITIONAL LEAVENING FOR SOUR MILK MIXTURES.--Some housekeepers maintain
that a superior flavor and quality is given to quick bread by the use of
sour milk. It has been found that most quick breads are sufficiently light
and porous when made with sour milk and baking soda, provided they contain
as much or almost as much sour milk as flour and provided they contain
eggs. If the quantity of sour milk is much less than that of flour
and no eggs are present, it is often desirable to add leavening
materials other than sour milk and baking soda.
From the results of Experiment 69 we know that an increased quantity of
baking soda will not produce satisfactory results. Hence more carbon
dioxide gas must be obtained by other means. Since baking powder consists
of both baking soda and an "acid" material, it makes a desirable substance
for additional leavening. A combination of baking soda, sour milk, and
baking powder is therefore used for leavening some quick bread mixtures,
especially those that contain only a small quantity of sour milk and no
eggs. This involves a double reaction:
(a) Baking soda + sour milk --> neutral material + carbon dioxide
gas + water.
(b) Baking powder (moistened and heated) --> neutral material +
carbon dioxide gas + water.
About 1/4 of baking powder is baking soda. Hence 1/4 teaspoonful of baking
soda (with the necessary quantity of "acid" material) is equivalent to 1
teaspoonful of baking powder in leavening. If 2 teaspoonfuls of baking
powder are used to leaven 1 cupful of flour, 1/2 teaspoonful of baking
soda (with the necessary quantity of "acid" material) should be
used to leaven 1 cupful of flour.
Two thirds teaspoonful of baking soda (with the necessary quantity
of "acid" material) should be used to leaven 1 cupful of coarse flour
or flour or meal other than wheat.
In determining the quantity of baking powder to use in materials leavened
with sour milk and baking soda, note the quantity of baking soda and
flour. Assuming that 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda (with "acid") or 2
teaspoonfuls of baking powder leavens 1 cupful of flour, determine the
amount of flour that the given quantity of baking soda (with "acid") will
leaven and then use sufficient baking powder to leaven the remainder of
the flour. For example, if a recipe states (among other ingredients) 1/2
teaspoonful of baking soda and 2 cupfuls of flour, the baking soda (with
"acid") will leaven 1 cupful of flour. Hence baking powder sufficient to
leaven 1 cupful of flour (i.e. 2 teaspoonfuls) should be used.
Again, if a recipe states that 3/4 teaspoonful baking soda and 2 cupfuls
of flour, the baking soda (with "acid") will leaven 1 1/2 cupfuls of
flour. Hence baking powder sufficient to leaven 1/2 cupful flour
(i.e. 1 teaspoonful) should be used.
SOUR MILK GRIDDLE CAKES (without eggs)
2 cupfuls flour
1/2 teaspoonful salt
1/2 teaspoonful baking powder
7/8 teaspoonful baking soda
1 3/4 cupfuls sour milk
3 tablespoonfuls fat
Turn the sour milk into a mixing bowl. Melt the fat and add it to the sour
milk. Add the dry ingredients (through a sifter) to the mixture. Mix
thoroughly. If more moisture is needed, add water.
CORN-MEAL GRIDDLE CAKES
1 cupful corn-meal
2 cupfuls water
3 tablespoonfuls fat
1 cupful sour milk
1 cupful flour
1 teaspoonful salt
1/2 teaspoonful baking soda [Footnote 82: The 1/2 teaspoonful of baking
soda
(with "acid") is sufficient to leaven the 1 cupful of flour. Then 2 1/2
teaspoonfuls of baking powder should be added, since 1 cupful of corn-
meal is
contained in the recipe (see Quantity of Baking Powder in Quick
Breads).]
2 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder [Footnote 83: See footnote 82]
1 to 2 tablespoonfuls sugar
Add the corn-meal to the water, mix thoroughly, and cook 5 minutes. Add
the fat. Cool. Then add the milk and dry ingredients. Mix thoroughly. Drop
at once on a hot griddle.
FRUIT SIRUP
Cook fresh fruit, or dried fruit that has been soaked in water, in a
generous quantity of water until it is very soft. Press through a
strainer. If it is not of the consistency of catsup, add more hot water.
Add from one eighth to one fourth cupful of sugar for each cupful of
sirup, or "sweeten to taste." Serve on griddle cakes, or use as a sauce
for Bread Pudding or Rice Pudding.
Fruit butters, marmalades, or jams may be diluted with water, heated, and
used in the same way.
QUESTIONS
If an egg or two were added to griddle cakes made with sour milk, how
should the recipe be changed? Give reasons for the change.
Explain the action of the leavening agents in Sour Milk Griddle Cakes
(without eggs).
In a quick bread leavened with baking soda, sour milk, and baking powder,
upon what ingredient does the quantity of baking soda depend? Upon what
ingredients does the quantity of baking powder depend? Explain your
answers.
What is the purpose of cooking the corn-meal before adding the other
ingredients? Why should the cooked mixture be cooled before adding the
other ingredients?
LESSON CXIV
LEAVENING WITH BAKING SODA, SOUR MILK, AND CREAM OF TARTAR: STEAMED BROWN
BREADS
ADDITIONAL LEAVENING FOR SOUR MILK MIXTURES.--Instead of using prepared
baking powder as additional leavening for sour milk mixtures (see previous
lesson) cream of tartar with sour milk and baking soda may be used. Enough
baking soda must be used, however, to neutralize both the sour milk and
the cream of tartar. This involves a double reaction:
(a) Baking soda + sour milk --> water + carbon dioxide gas +
neutral substance.
(b) Baking soda + cream of tartar --> water + carbon dioxide gas +
a neutral substance.
If molasses is used with the sour milk and baking soda, a third reaction
occurs:
(c) Baking soda + molasses --> water + carbon dioxide gas + neutral
substance.
It has been found that the following proportion of cream of tartar and
baking soda is effective in leavening: 1 1/4 teaspoonfuls of cream of
tartar with 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda. These quantities of
materials are sufficient to leaven 1 cupful of flour. 1 1/2
teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar with 2/3 teaspoonful of baking
soda are required to leaven 1 cupful coarse wheat flour or flour or meal
other than wheat.
In determining the quantity of cream of tartar and baking soda to use with
mixtures containing sour milk or other acid food, note the quantity of
flour (or other cereal) in the recipe. Assuming that 1/2 teaspoonful of
baking soda (with the necessary "acid" material) leavens 1 cupful of
flour, determine the total quantity of baking soda, which (with the
necessary "acid" material) will leaven the flour. Then determine how much
of the baking soda will be neutralized by the sour milk or other "acid"
food. Assuming that l-1/4 teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar are needed to
neutralize 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda, use enough cream of tartar to
neutralize the remainder of the baking soda. For example, if a recipe
calls for (among other ingredients) 2 cupfuls flour and 1 cupful of sour
milk, 1 teaspoonful of baking soda (with the necessary "acid" material)
will be needed to leaven the flour. Since 1 cupful of sour milk will
neutralize only 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda, enough cream of tartar
(i.e. 1 1/4 teaspoonfuls) will be needed to neutralize the
remainder of the baking soda.
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR STEAMED QUICK BREAD MIXTURES.--A quick bread
mixture that is to be steamed should be placed in a covered utensil. If
the mold or the can used for steaming has no cover, an oiled paper should
be tied over the top. As with all quick breads, the molds for steamed
mixtures should be oiled. If the quick bread is a pour batter, the mold
should be oiled and then sprinkled with flour. It should never be filled
more than two thirds full.
A steamer placed over boiling water may be used for the steaming; or a
kettle of boiling water containing a rack may be used. If the latter
device is employed, the boiling water in the kettle should come halfway to
the top of the molds. As the water evaporates, add more boiling
water. Less time is required in the steaming, if the mold is placed
directly in the water.
At least one hour is required for steaming breads. The longer brown bread
is steamed, the darker it becomes. A mixture in an earthen mold requires
more time than does one in a tin or granite mold (see Experiment 46).
PLAIN BROWN BREAD
2 cupfuls graham flour
2/3 cupful white flour
3/4 cupful brown sugar
2/3 teaspoonful salt
1 2/3 teaspoonfuls baking soda
1 1/2 teaspoonfuls cream of tartar
2 cupfuls sour milk
Mix all dry ingredients thoroughly. Turn the sour milk into a mixing bowl.
Add the dry ingredients; mix well. Turn at once into an oiled bread pan,
and bake in the oven from 50 to 60 minutes; or fill one-pound baking
powder cans (which have been oiled) two thirds full, and steam at least 4
hours. If the bread is steamed, remove it (after steaming) from the molds
and dry in the oven for a few minutes.
BOSTON BROWN BREAD
1/4 cupful sugar
1 cupful corn-meal
2 cupfuls graham flour
3/4 teaspoonful salt
2 teaspoonfuls baking soda
2 teaspoonfuls cream of tartar
2 cupfuls sour milk
1/2 cupful molasses
Mix the dry ingredients (except the sugar) thoroughly. Turn the molasses,
sugar, and sour milk into a mixing bowl. Add the dry ingredients; mix
well. Turn at once into oiled molds, and steam at least 4 hours. Remove
from the molds, and dry in the oven for a few minutes.
Rye meal or bread crumbs may be substituted for 1 cupful of graham flour.
If dried bread crumbs are used, moisten them with a little cold water
before adding to the other ingredients.
1 cupful of raisins may also be added to the ingredients of the above
recipe. If raisins are used, cut them in two and sprinkle flour over them.
BUTTER BALLS
Cut firm butter into half-ounce pieces and place in a pan of ice water.
Scrub the butter paddles; place in boiling water for 10 minutes; and then
in the pan of ice water until chilled. Place a piece of butter on one of
the paddles and hold the paddle stationary. Shape the butter with the
other butter paddle, moving it in a circular direction. Hold the paddle
over the ice water while shaping. Place the butter balls in a cool place.
QUESTIONS
What gas is formed in these mixtures to leaven them? By what means is the
gas formed in each mixture?
How much baking soda and cream of tartar should be used in a recipe
containing 2 cupfuls of flour, 1 cupful of sour milk, and 1/2 cupful
molasses?
Account for the quantity of baking soda used in each of the Brown Bread
recipes.
Give two reasons why the paper used to cover a steamed quick bread mixture
should be oiled. Why are molds for steamed mixtures filled only two thirds
full?
Why should boiling water be used to replenish the water in steaming
kettle? Why is a longer time required for steaming than for baking quick
bread mixtures?
Why should butter paddles be cleaned with a brush rather than with a
cloth?
What is the purpose of placing butter paddles in boiling water before
using?
Why hold the paddles over ice water while shaping the butter balls?
LESSON CXV
FORMULATING RECIPES--WAFFLES
LEAVENING FORMULAS.--A practical housekeeper needs to be able to formulate
fundamental recipes. In preparing quick bread recipes, she should know the
required consistency of flour mixtures, i.e. the approximate
proportion of moisture and flour for each bread; and the proportion of
leavening, seasoning, and "shortening" (fat) materials to use with flour.
In previous lessons, general statements have been made concerning the
quantity of leavening materials to use under various conditions. The
following is the approximate amount of leavening material to be used for
quick breads that contain little or no sugar:
BAKING SODA AND SOUR MILK
1/2 teaspoonful baking soda to 1 cupful of sour milk
BAKING SODA AND MOLASSES [Footnote 84: See footnote 80.]
1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda to 1 cupful molasses
FLOUR AND BAKING POWDER
2 teaspoonfuls baking powder to 1 cupful of flour when no eggs are used.
When eggs are used, reduce the entire quantity of baking powder by 1/2
teaspoonful for each egg.
COARSE WHEAT FLOUR, OR FLOUR (OR MEAL) OTHER THAN WHEAT, AND BAKING POWDER
2 1/2 teaspoonfuls of baking powder to 1 cupful of coarse flour or meal.
FLOUR, CREAM OF TARTAR, AND BAKING SODA
1 1/4 teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar and 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda
to 1 cupful of flour.
COARSE WHEAT FLOUR, OR FLOUR (OR MEAL) OTHER THAN WHEAT, CREAM OF TARTAR
AND BAKING SODA
1 1/2 teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar and 2/3 teaspoonful of baking soda
to 1 cupful of flour.
Examine a number of recipes previously given, and note the quantity of
salt and fat used with 1 cupful of flour.
In general, the following quantities of salt and fat are used for quick
breads that contain little or no sugar:
FLOUR AND SALT
1/4 teaspoonful of salt to 1 cupful of flour
FLOUR AND FAT
1 tablespoonful of fat to 1 cupful of flour
While these data are helpful in formulating recipes, the pupil should
remember that they are all approximate and for plain breads only. When
recipes are modified by the addition of a cereal, a fruit, or a flavoring
material, some of the quantities will need to be changed.
WAFFLES
2 cupfuls flour
3 to 3 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder
1/2 teaspoonful salt
1 to 2 eggs
1 1/2 cupfuls milk
2 tablespoonfuls fat
Mix according to the directions for Plain Griddle Cakes. The quantity of
baking powder depends upon the number of eggs. The greater quantity should
be used with one egg. Before using the waffle irons, they should be heated
slowly on both sides and oiled thoroughly. Oleomargarine, oil, or lard may
be used for this purpose.
Pour the batter quickly into the hot irons, close the irons at once, and
brown the waffles on both sides. Serve with sirup or gravy.
QUESTIONS
Write a recipe for waffles, using sweet milk and baking powder and 3 eggs.
Write two recipes for waffles, using sour milk and soda (with additional
leavening, if necessary) and 1 egg in the one, and 2 eggs in the other.
How many waffles does the given recipe make?
RELATED WORK
LESSON CXVI
MEASUREMENT OF THE FUEL VALUE OF FOODS
HOW FOOD IS ASSIMILATED.--The uses of the foodstuffs,--carbohydrates,
fats, protein, ash, water, and vitamines,--were given. It was stated that
these foodstuffs either (a) "burned" (i.e. united with
oxygen) and produced energy, (b) built the body, or (c)
aided in regulating body processes.
All parts of the body are composed of microscopic cells. By the process of
digestion the foodstuffs are made entirely soluble (see Solution and
Digestion); they are then further altered, i.e. split to their
end products and absorbed through the walls of the alimentary canal. The
blood carries the digestion products to all parts of the body. The blood
also carries oxygen,--which has been breathed into the body from the
air,--to all parts of the body. The body cells then select the foodstuffs
that they need to carry on their work. Some cells pick out the fuel
materials--carbohydrates, fat, or protein--and oxygen. Fuel foods when
oxidized, produce energy. Other body cells select some of the body
builders--protein or ash--and use these for building or repairing tissue.
The cells which build bone choose ash and the other materials needed for
building bones; the cells which build muscle choose protein and the other
materials needed for building muscle.
Little is known regarding the use of vitamines by the body cells, other
than that they are indispensable for the growth and maintenance of the
body.
HOW ENERGY OR FUEL VALUE IS MEASURED.--It was stated that the human body
could be compared to an automobile, i.e. the "burning" of the fuel
foods in the body produced the ability to do work. The quantity of energy
that fuel food is capable of giving off is termed the fuel value of
that food. Energy has been defined as the ability to do work. Since heat
is energy, the fuel value of foods shows, in part, [Footnote 85: Although
ash, water, and vitamines nourish the body, it is impossible to measure
their nutritive value in terms of fuel value. Fuel value expresses the
nutritive value only of the combustible foodstuffs,--carbohydrates, fats,
and protein. However, according to Sherman, "the most conspicuous
nutritive requirement is that of energy for the work of the body." Hence,
the fuel value of a food is often spoken of as its nutritive value (see
"Chemistry of Food and Nutrition," Second Edition, by Henry C. Sherman,
Ph.D., p. 138).] their nutritive value. If the quantity of heat that is
produced by burning a food is measured, the measurement indicates the
quantity of energy that the food is capable of giving to the body.
Heat cannot be measured by weight or length, but by the change in
temperature which it produces in a given weight of a certain material. The
heat unit is not a pound or yard, but a Calorie, or a definite
quantity of heat, which, when applied to materials, will produce change of
temperature in those materials. If the temperature of one pound [Footnote
86: NOTE TO THE TEACHER--The avoirdupois system of measurement and the
Fahrenheit scale of temperature are used in this text. It is believed by
the author that less than ten per cent of all pupils taking this course
will enter college. Hence, the use of the measurements that are more in
keeping with the pupils' practical needs. For the small minority who will
enter college, a thorough drill in the metric system is urged. The
following formula gives the necessary information for changing from the
Fahreheit to the Centigrade scale: Subtract 32 and multiply by 5/9.] of
water is 70 degrees Fahrenheit, and it is desired to increase the
temperature of that water to 74 degrees Fahrenheit, a certain quantity of
heat will have to be applied. It has been found that the quantity of heat
required to raise the temperature of one pound of water through any four
degrees of the Fahrenheit scale is practically the same, i.e. the
quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water
from 32 degrees to 36 degrees F. is about the same as the quantity of heat
that must be applied to raise the temperature of one pound of water from
60 degrees to 64 degrees F. The unit of measurement of heat is taken as
the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of
water through about 4 degrees F.
The Calorie, [Footnote 87: I.e. greater Calorie, distinguished from
the lesser calorie by the capital C.] used for food calculation, is
approximately the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of
one pound (pint) of water through 4 degrees F. If one pint of water
were placed over a lighted burner and heated until it increased four
degrees in temperature, approximately one Calorie of heat would have
been applied to the water (see Figure 82).
HOW THE FUEL VALUE OF A FOOD MATERIAL IS MEASURED.--Scientists have worked
with care to obtain accurate data for the measurement of the heat produced
by foods burning in the body. The data accepted to-day differ from those
given by Rubner some years ago. [Footnote 88: See "Chemistry of Foods and
Nutrition," Second Edition, by Henry C. Sherman, Ph.D., p. 143,
"Physiological Fuel Values."]
1 gram protein yields 4 Calories
1 gram fat yields 9 Calories
1 gram carbohydrate yields 4 Calories
Expressing grams approximately in ounces, these data become:
1 ounce of protein yields 113 Calories
1 ounce of fat yields 255 Calories
1 ounce of carbohydrate yields 113 Calories
[Illustration: FIGURE 82.--ILLUSTRATING THE AMOUNT OF HEAT REPRESENTED BY
ONE CALORIE.]
In order to find the fuel value of foods, it is necessary to know their
composition. For such data United States Department of Agriculture
Bulletin No. 28 is a valuable source.
Flour.--The fuel content of flour is (see United States
Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, p. 58, All Analyses
Average):
10.6 per cent protein; 1.1 per cent fat; 76.3 per cent carbohydrates.
Then, 1 ounce of flour contains, 0.106 ounce of protein; 0.011 ounce of
fat; 0.763 ounce carbohydrates.
The protein in one ounce of flour yields (113 x 0106 =) 11.97 Calories.
[Illustration: FIGURE 83.--COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS OF 100-CALORIE PORTIONS OF
FOODS.]
The fat in one ounce of flour yields (255 x 0.011 =) 2.80 Calories. The
carbohydrates in one ounce of flour yield (113 x 0.763 =) 86.21 Calories.
Total Calories furnished by 1 ounce of flour are (11.97 + 2.80 + 86.21 =)
100.98.
Butter.--The fuel content of butter is (see United States
Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, p. 54):
1 per cent protein; 85 per cent fat; no carbohydrates.
1 ounce of butter contains 0.01 ounce of protein, 0.85 ounce of fat, and
no carbohydrates.
The protein in one ounce of butter yields (0.01 x 113 =) 1.13 Calories.
The fat in one ounce of butter yields (0.85 x 255 =) 216.75 Calories.
Number of total Calories furnished by one ounce of butter is
(1.13+216.75=) 217.88.
Sugar.--The fuel content of sugar is (see United States
Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, p. 65) no per cent
protein; no per cent fat; 100 per cent carbohydrates.
1 ounce of sugar contains no protein, no fat, and 1 ounce carbohydrates. 1
ounce sugar yields (113 x 1 =) 113 Calories.
HOW THE WEIGHT OF FOOD MATERIALS PRODUCING 100 CALORIES IS MEASURED.--For
practical work in computing the fuel value of foods, it has been found
more convenient to reduce all data to terms which express equal fuel value
instead of equal weight as in the foregoing paragraph. One hundred
Calories is the unit chosen. The weight of a food which, when "burned" in
the body, will produce one hundred Calories is the desired data. This
weight is termed a standard portion or a 100-Calorie portion
(see Figures 83 and 84).
From the previous work, it is a simple matter to compute in ounces the
quantity of food materials which will yield 100 Calories.
If 1 ounce of flour yields 100.98 Calories and x represents the
number of ounces of flour which will yield 100 Calories, then
x/1=100/100.98 or x=0.99, the number of ounces of flour
which yield 100 Calories, i.e. a 100-Calorie portion of flour.
If 1 ounce of butter yields 217.88 Calories and x represents the
number of ounces of butter which will yield 100 Calories, then
x/1=100/217.88 or x=0.45, the number of ounces of butter
which yield 100 Calories, i.e. a 100-Calorie portion of butter.
[Illustration: FIGURE 84--100-CALORIE PORTIONS OF FOODS. a, banana, b,
butter, c, eggs d, meat; e, bread.]
If 1 ounce of sugar yields 113 Calories and x represents the number of
ounces of sugar which will yield 100 Calories, then x/1=100/113 or
x=0.88, the number of ounces of sugar which will yield 100
Calories, i.e. a 100-Calorie portion of sugar.
HOW THE FUEL VALUE OF A COMBINATION OF FOOD MATERIAL IS MEASURED.--It is
possible to compute the fuel value of a food that is made up of several
food materials. To do this one must know or find:
(a) Recipe for food.
(b) Weight and measure of combustible food materials.
(c) Number of Calories yielded by one ounce of each of the
combustible
foodstuffs.
The recipe for one loaf of bread is:
1 cupful water
1 teaspoonful salt
1 teaspoonful sugar
3 1/2 cupfuls flour
1/2 tablespoonful butter
1/4 cake compressed yeast
1/4 cupful water
By weighing and measuring one finds:
1 pound sugar measures 2 cupfuls
1 pound butter measures 2 cupfuls
1 pound flour measures 4 cupfuls
Then,
1 teaspoonful sugar weighs 0.16 ounce
1/3 tablespoonful butter weighs 0.25 ounce
3 1/2 cupfuls flour weigh 14.0 ounces
(From data of How the Fuel Value of a Food Material is Measured.)
1 teaspoonful sugar yields (113 x 0.16 =) 18.08 Calories
1/2 tablespoonful butter yields (217.88 x 0.25 =) 54.47 Calories
3 1/2 cupfuls flour yield (100.98 x 14 =) 1413.72 Calories
1 loaf of bread yields (18.08 + 54.47 + 1413.72 =) 1486.27 Calories
For the practical method of calculating diet (which is more fully treated
in Lesson CXXXI), it is convenient to have the 100-Calorie portion of a
recipe, or a "made" food.
The 100-Calorie portion of bread is estimated from the result above in the
following manner:
Since 1486.27 Calories are yielded by one loaf of homemade bread, then 100
Calories are yielded by (100/1486.27 =) .06 or 6 per cent of a loaf of
homemade bread; hence, 1/16 (6
) or 1 slice of homemade bread yields 100 Calories.
QUESTIONS
Find the number of Calories produced by one ounce of milk.
Find the number of Calories produced by one ounce of egg.
Weigh out 100-Calorie portions of flour, butter, and sugar.
Measure these quantities, using a cup for the flour, a tablespoon for the
butter, and a teaspoon for the sugar.
Compute 100-Calorie portions of milk and the edible portion of eggs, then
weigh these portions.
Measure this portion of milk in a cup. How many eggs make a standard
portion?
Why are water, salt, and yeast not considered when the fuel value is
computed?
Compute the fuel value of 1 pint of Soft Custard.
Find the 100-Calorie portion of Soft Custard.
NOTE.--Forms A and B given on the following pages will be found convenient
in recording the results of these calculations.
LESSON CXVII
PLANNING, COOKING, AND SERVING A DINNER
Plan a plain dinner. [Footnote 89: See footnote 72.] Use seasonable foods.
Follow the suggestions given in Lesson CV. Plan the menu so that the cost
of the materials used does not exceed 25 cents per person. Analyze the
menu and see that it meets the requirements stated in Lesson CV.
Cook and serve the dinner. Follow the English or family style of serving.
Serve the meal without a maid.
[Illustration: FORM A: CALCULATION OF 100-CALORIE PORTIONS OF FOODS]
[Illustration: FORM B: CALCULATION OF FUEL VALUE OF RECIPES]
LESSON CXVIII
REVIEW: MEAL COOKING
MENU
Cereal Griddle Cakes
Fruit Sirup
Coffee
or
Butterscotch Apples
Gingerbread
Tea
See Lesson XIV regarding suggestions for the preparation of the lesson.
LESSON CXIX
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 90: See Lesson IX.]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Prepare a quick bread such as Popovers or
Gingerbread in your home at least once a week.
If griddle cakes are served in your home, prepare cakes at least once a
week.
Calculate the cost of these breads.
Suggested Aims:
(1) To use various leavens in quick breads. To compare results secured by
using sweet milk or water with baking powder, and sour milk with baking
soda, or sour milk with baking soda and baking powder.
(2) To use different liquids in Gingerbread, viz., sour milk, water, sweet
milk. To compare results obtained by the use of each.
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